English Grammar 382w4p

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Definitions It is difficult to capture the central role played by grammar in the structure of language, other than by using a metaphor such as" framework" or "skeleton". But no physical metaphor can express satisfactorily the multipfarious kinds of formal patterning and abstract relationship that are brought to light in a grammatical analysis. Two steps can usually be distinguished in the study of grammar. The first step is to identify units in the stream of speech (or writing or g) - Units such as "word" or "sentence". The second step is to analyse the patterns into which these units fall, and the relationships of meaning that these patterns convey. Depending upon which units we recognize at the beginning of the study, so the definition of grammar alters.

Most approaches begin by

recognizing the "sentence", and grammar is thus defined as the "study of sentence structure". A grammar of a language, from this point of view, is an of the language's possible sentence' structures, organized according to certain general principles. For example, in the opening pages of the most influential grammatical treatise of recent times, the American linguist Noam Chomsky

writes that grammar is a "device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis" (1957, 71). Within this general perspective there is room for many different positions. In particular, there are two quite distinct applications of the term "grammar", yielding a specific sense and a general one. The specific sense is the more traditional :

here, grammar is

presented as just one branch of language structure, distinct from phonology and semantics. This is the approach which is used in the present course of theoretical grammar: Language Structure

phonology

grammar

semantics

The general sense of the term, popularized by Chomsky, subsumes all aspects of sentence patterning, including phonology and semantics, and introduces the term "syntax" as the more specific notion : Grammar

phonology

syntax

sematics

The distinction as presented above might be associated with the notion of linguistic level in language. Language is considered to be a system of different linguistic levels, each being a subsystem of the language system. Traditionally, the following linguistic levels are recognized : (a) sound, (b) morpheme, (c) word and (d) sentence.

However, in modern linguistics there is another

linguistic level: that of text / discourse. There are different definitions of grammar, some of which are presented bellow: 1.1.1. Traditionally, grammar could be defined as a system of rules of word - formation and sentence building. 1.1.2. A grammar is a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences and texts in the language.

It

usually takes into the meanings and functions these sentences have in the overall system of the language. It may or may not include the description of the sounds of a language. 1.1.3. Grammar is a set of rules and a lexicon which describes the knowledge (competence) which a speaker has of his or her own language. 1.1.4. According to recent definition, grammar is "a device that specifies the infinite set of well - formed sentences and assigns to each of them one or more structural descriptions". That is to say it

tells us just what are all the possible sentences of a language and provides a description of them. 1.1.5. The term grammar could be understood in different senses : 1.1.5.1. In its global sense, within the framework of descriptive grammar, sometimes the term "grammar" is used to stand for ALL the knowledge that native speaker has about his or her language. It includes : • Phonological facts, • Facts about the structure of words and sentences, • Facts about the meanings of words and sentences, • Facts about the organisation of the whole text / discourse. 1.1.5.2. In its narrow sense the term grammar is often used to refer to a particular body of information about a language : that having to do only with the structure of words and sentences. Grammar as understood in this manner is composed of morphology and syntax. 1.2. Types of grammar 1.2.1. Traditional grammar This is a term often used to summarize the range of attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistic science. The "traditional" in question is over 2,000 years old, and includes the work of classical Greek and Roman grammarians. It is difficult to generalize about such a wide variety of approaches, but linguists generally used the term

pejoratively, identifying an unscientific approach to grammatical study, in which languages were analysed in of Latin, with scant reguard for impirical facts. According to L. L. Iofik et al (1981: 6), until the 17th century the term “grammar” in English was applied only to the study of Latin. This usage was a result of the fact that Latin grammar was the only grammar learned in schools and that until the end of the 16th century there were no grammars of English. Later on, English grammars were written based on Latin grammar. For example, in W. Bullokar’s grammar there are 5 cases of nouns (cf 6 cases in Latin) and 6 genders (this was the number of genders attributed to the Latin language in medieval grammars). The grammars based on this approach were often notional and prescriptive in their approach. 1.2.2. Prescriptive grammar The age of prescriptive grammar begins in the second half of the 18th century.

The aims of the prescriptive grammars were to

reduce the English language to rules and to set up a standard of correct usage. The rise of prescriptive grammar met the demand for settling usage and for codifying and systematizing grammar. Prescriptive grammar was usually in the form of a manual that focuses on constructions where usage is divided, and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language.

Mostly,

prescriptive grammatical rules are phrased as prohibitions. Some

prohibitions have to do with sentence structures, some with uses of particular types of words, others with individual words. Prescriptive grammars were a formative influence on language attitudes in Europe and America during the 18th and 19th centuries. 1.2.3. Descriptive / Structural grammar This is an approach that describes the grammatical constructions that are used in a language, without making any evaluative judgements about their standing in society. These grammars are common place in linguistics, where it is standard practice to investigate a "corpus" of spoken or written material, and to describe in detail the patterns it contains. In descriptive / structural grammar, the linguist gathers data from native speakers and analyses the components of their speech, organizing the data into separate hierarchical levels of language : phonology, morphology and syntax. This type of analysis was developed by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield, Charles Fries…., when they confronted the problem of describing native american languages. Challenging conventional methods and techniques of linguistic description that were based on writtentexts, they formulated methods for identifying the distinctive sound units of a language (the phoneme), and the minimal units of sound

combination that carry meaning (the morpheme).

In the

application of the methods, newly developed techniques were used, such as distributional analysis and substitution.

Also in this

approach, the importance of language as a system was stressed and the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, and sentences have within this system were investigated. The approach came to be known as structural descriptive grammar. In Charles Fries’ The Structure of English words were classified into four form-classes, designated by number : Form- classes1,2,3 and 4, and fifteen groups of “functional words”, designated by letters. Sentence structure was represented in of immediate constituent analysis introduced by Bloomfield. There were two schools of structural, descriptive grammar : American and European.

While American Descriptivism /

Structuralism concentrated on the utterances of speech, in Europe structuralism emphasized an underlying, abstract system of language structure that was distinguishable from actual instances of speech. 1.2.4. Generative grammar This is a type of grammar which attempts to define and describe by a set of rules all the GRAMMATICAL sentences of a language and no ungrammatical ones. This type of grammar is said to generate, or produce, grammatical sentences.

The most important grammar of this type is GENERATIVE TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR.

A transformational-

generative grammar is a grammar that generates all the acceptable sentences of a language and uses rules, called transformations, to transform, or change, the underlying elements into what a person actually says. This theory of grammar was proposed by the american linguist N. Chomsky in 1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists.

Chomsky attepted to provide a model for the

description of all languages. His has changed his theory over the years. The most well-known version was published in his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often referred as the Aspects Model or Standard Theory. This model consists of four main parts: a- the base Components, which produces or generates basic syntactic structures called Deep Structures; b- the Transformational Component, which changes or transforms these basic structures into sentences called surface structures; c- the phonological components, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced; d- the semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.

Chomsky and others later modified the Aspects Model into Extended Standard Theory. 1.2.5. Functional Grammar A functional grammar is the one which is based on the functional framework rather than a formal one. It was originated byM. A. K Halliday (with the book An Introduction to Functional Grammar), following British functional tradition in linguistics. According to him, A grammar is functional in three distinct although closely related senses: in its interpretation a- of texts, bof the system, and c- of the elements of linguistic structure. a- It is functional in the sense that it is designed to for how the language is used.

A functional grammar is essentially a

“natural” grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained, ultimately, by reference to how language is used. b- Following from this, the fundamental components of meaning in language are functional components. c- Thirdly, each element in a language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system. (Halliday ,1985 : i ) 1.2.6. Pedagogical grammar This is often in the form of a book specifically designed for teaching a foreign language, or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue. Such "teaching grammars" are widely used in

schools, so much so that many people have only one meaning for the term"grammar" : a grammar book. 1.2.7. Reference grammar This is a grammatical description that tries to be as comprehessive as possible, so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts.

Several north

European grammarians compiled handbooks of this type in the early 20th century, the best-known being the seven - volume Modern English Grammar (1909 -49) by the Danish grammarian Otto Jesperson and Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985) by Randolph Quirk (1920-)et all. 1.2.8. Theoretical grammar This is an approach that goes beyond the study of individual languages, to determine what constructs are needed in order to do any kind of grammatical analysis, and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of a human language. It is thus a central notion in any investigation of linguistic universals. In general, theoretical grammar is concerned with building language models or theories to describe languages or to explain their structures. MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX are subdivisions of grammar. 1.3. Grammatical units

In the study of grammar, the following grammatical units are generally recognized : morphemes, words, phrases (and word groups), clauses, and sentences. In a sense, the two units - words and sentences - are basic to grammar, though they are by no means the only units of grammatical structure, and there is no direct relation between words and sentences.

Neither are they the

smallest and largest units of grammar respectively : there are recognizable units smaller than words, and units larger than sentences. However, sentences do exhibit a structure that no larger unit, eg paragraph or discourse, does.

And larger units are

discussed in of changes that take place in sentences or of characteristic features of particular sentences : this is in the area of text syntax and discourse analysis. The focus of the present course of theoretical grammar is mainly on such grammatical units as morphemes, words, phrases (and word - groups), clauses and sentences. However, there will be a section on text syntax. 1.4. Syntactic Relations 1.4.1. Generally speaking, the grammatical relations between grammatical units in a sentence are called syntactic relations. There are three categories of syntactic relations: 1.4.1.1. Subject - predicate relations 1.4.1.2. Subordinate relations 1.4.1.3. Coordinate relations.

REVIEW 1 : 1 - What is grammar? Discuss different definitions of grammar. 2 - What are the types of grammar you have learned? 3 - What grammatical units are generally recognized in the study of grammar? 4 - What is a syntactic relation? Discuss the three categories of syntactic relations. Give examples to illustrate. 5- Analyse the following sentences in of clauses, phrases, words and morphemes: a- They rolled the barrel into the courtyard. b- You must not walk on the grass. c-Gorden sent his apologies to the meeting. d- The farmer was eating his lunch in the cornfield. e- The old grey cat loved being swung through the air. 6- Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

CHAPTER 2 . MORPHOLOGY : The Study of Word Structure 2.1. Morphology 2.1.1. How is it that we can use and understand words in our language that we have never encountered before?

This is the

central question of morphology, the component of a grammar that deals with the internal structure of words. As with any other area of linguistic theory, we must distinguish between general morphological theory that applies to all languages and the morphology of a particular language.

General

morphological theory is concerned with delimiting exactly what types of morphological rules that can be found in natural languages. The morphology of a particular language, on the other hand, is a set of rules with a dual function. First, these rules are responsible for word formation, the formation of new words. Second, they represent the speakers's unconscious knowledge of the internal structure of the already existing words of their language. 2.1.2. Definitions The study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, is called morphology.

Just as

knowledge of a language implies knowledge of the phonology, so it also implies knowledge of the morphology.

Morphology could also be defined as the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs) and the way they combine in WORD FORMATION. For example, the English word unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjective -forming suffix -ly and the negative prefix un-. Morphology could also be used to refer to a morphemic system : in this sense, one can speak of "comparing the morphology of English with the morphology of German". 2.1.3. According to P.H. Matthews in Recent Development in Morphology (in New Horisons in Linguistics by John Lyons, 1970 : pp 96 -114) the theory of synchronic morphology may usefully be considered from three angles : 2.1.3.1. What are the basic units of morphological structure, and what are the relations which obtain between them? 2.1.3.2. How are these units signalled or realised in the phonological structure of the sentence? 2.1.3.3. What are the criteria for determining the morphological analysis of any language? In the 1940s and early 1950s the first two questions received comparatively simple answers; on the other hand, the thirds question - the question of criteria, was the subject of extensive and prominent debate in linguistic journals.

2.1.4.The units of morphology are simply the abstract grammatical constructs which correspond to the recurring segments : in our example, the units which we might symbolize FARM, -ER, and " Plural". These units are almost universally known as morphemes. Likewise the relation between these units is that of simple sequence : thus in our example the morpheme FARM precedes the second morpheme -ER, and this precedes the third morpheme "Plural". The signals or morphological realizations of these units are

the

recurring

segments

themselves.

The

complete

morphological analysis of farmers might accordingly be shown by a diagram : FARM

- ER

↕ farm

Plural ↕

er

↕ s

in which the morphemes and morphs are paired off in the appropriate sequence, and the complete morphological analysis of the language would involve : 2.1.4.1. A specification of the inventory of morphemes; 2.1.4.2. A specification of the sequence in which these morphemes can appear; and 2.1.4.3. A specification of the morph or morphs by which each morpheme can be realized; in other words, providing the link

between the grammatical aspects of morphological structure and the phonology. In this part of the course, we shall examine both word structure and word formation. We would begin by indentifying the minimal meaningful units of language : the morpheme. 2.2. The Minimal Meaningful Units of Language In any science, one of the basic problems is to identify the minimal units, the basic parts out of which more complex units are constructed. In language, we must distinguish the basic units of sounds, which in themselves are meaningless, from the basic meaningful units, which are made up of individually meaningless sounds. 2.2.1. Words Most people, if asked what the minimal meaningful units of language are, would have a ready answer - words. Indeed, of all the units of linguistic analysis, the word is the most familiar. In fact, its existence is taken for granted by most of us. We rarely have difficulty picking out the words in a stream of speech sounds or deciding where to leave spaces when writing a sentence. But what, precisely, is a word? The word could be defined as the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing (J. Richard, 1985).

In writing, word boundaries are usually recognized by spaces between the words.

In speech, word boundaries may be

recognized by slight pauses. In of structure, words may be divided into simple, complex and compound words. Examples are table, smallest and green house respectively. Smallest and green house as words could be seen as being made up of smaller meaninful units : small + est, green + house. The analysis leads us to the conclusion that words are not the minimal meaningful units in a language. 2.2.2. Free Forms Most linguists believe that the word is best defined in of the way in which it patterns syntactically.

One widely accepted

definition of this type is as follows : A word is a minimal free form. A free form is an element that can occur in isolation and/ or whose position with respect to neighbouring elements is not entirely fixed. Thus we would say that hunters is a word (and a free form) since it can occur in different positions within the sentences. Hunters as a word and a free form is not a minimal meaninful unit in the English language since it can be analysed into three smaller parts : hunt+er+s. 2.2.3. Signs and Morphemes Words, though they may be definable as minimal free forms, are not the minimal meaningful units of language we are looking for,

since they can be broken down further. The word hunters, which as we have just seen can stand alone and is thus a free form, nonetheless consists of three meaningful parts : hunt, -er, and -s. The traditional term for these minimal meaninful units is sign. A more common term in linguistics is morpheme. Most linguistic signs are arbitrary, which means that the connection between the sound of a given sign and its meaning is purely conventional, not rooted in some property of the object for which the sign stands. For example, there is nothing about the sound of the word frog that has anything to do with frog. The minimal meaningful units of language are not words, but arbitrary signs or morphemes. 2.3. Morphemes : The Minimal Units of Meaning 2.3.1.As we have seen above, knowing a language means knowing the words of that language. When you know a word you know both its sound and its meaning : these are inseparable parts of the linguistic sign. Each word is stored in our mental dictionaries with its phonological representation, its meaning (semantic properties) and its syntactic class, or category, specification. Words are not the most elemental sound - meaning units; some words are structurally complex. The most elemental grammatical units in a language are morphemes. Thus, moralisers is an English word composed of four morphemes : moral + ise + er + s.

2.3.2. Definition: The morpheme could be defined as the smallest (minimal) meaningful unit in a language. Morphemes are meaningful units of meaning that meet three criteria (in Giao trinh Tu vung hoc Tieng Anh by Nguyen Thi Hong & Nguyen Thi Anh Dao, 1996). 2.3.2.1. A morpheme is a word or part of a word that has meaning. Thus a single word may be composed of one or more morphemes, eg. one morpheme

boy, desire

two morphemes

boy + ish, desire + able

three morphemes

boy + ish + ness, desire + able + ity

four morphemes

gentle + man + li + ness, un + desire + able +ity

more than four morphemes: un + gentle + man + li + ness anti + dis + establish + ment + ari +an + ism. 2.3.2.2. A morpheme is the smallest indivisible meaningful unit of a language . If we divide the word ungentlemanliness into smaller parts, we could have the following segments which have meaning : un + gentle + man + li + ness. But if we continue to break them down further, we can not have smaller parts which have meaning.

Therefore, un, gentle, man, li, ness are smallest meaningful units. They are the morphemes of the English language. They can not be further broken down without destroying their meanings. 2.3.2.3. A morpheme recurs in different words with constant meaning. Take the following word sets as examples: Word set 1 phone

phonic

phonetic

phoneme

phonotician

phonemic

phonetics

allophone

phonology

telephone

phonologist

telephonic

phonological

euphonious

Word set 2 desirable

undesirable

likely

unlikely

inspired

uninspired

happy

unhappy

developed

undeveloped

sophisticated

unsophisticated

Word set 3 Impossible

Irregular Illegal If we look at the first word set, we could see that all the words in the set are related in both sound and meaning to certain extent. They all include the same phonological form with a meaning identical to that of the first word, phone (meaning sound). The form phone recurs in all these words with two phonetic variants : [f∂n] and [foun] according to different phonetic contexts. If we examine the second and the third set, we would arrive at the same conclusion.

In the second word set the prefix un- as a

morpheme meaning not recurs in different words with stable meaning. In the third word set, the morpheme (also meaning not) with its different phonetic variants im-, ir-, and il- recurs in different words.

As we have seen, a morpheme can recur in

different words with constant meaning. 2.4. Morpheme and Morph We have described morphemes as minimal units of grammatical analysis - the units of "lowest" rank out of which words, the units of next "highest" rank, are composed of. By way of example, we said that the English word FARMERS is composed of three morphemes : farm, -er, and - s. Each one of which has a particular distribution

and

also

a

particular

phonological

(and

orthorgraphical) form or shape. We must introduce another notion morph. It is clear that the complex and compound words can be segmented into parts. According to John Lyons (1968 : 183) the morpheme is not a segment of the word at all; it has no position in the word, but merely 'factorial' function. When the word can be segmented into parts, these segments are referred to as morphs. Thus the word bigger is analysable into two morphs, which can be written orthographically as big and er and in a phonological transcription as/big/ and /∂/. Each morph represents (or is the exponent of) a particular morpheme. The distinction that we have drawn here between morphs and morphemes can be expressed in of de Saussure 's distiction of substance and form. Like all grammatical units, the morpheme is an element of 'form', 'arbitrarily' related to its 'substantial' realization on the phonological(or orthographical) level of the language.

As we have seen, morphemes may be represented

directly by phonological (or orthographical) segments with a particular 'shape' (that is, by morphs), but they may also be represented in the substance of the language in other ways. In order to refer to morphemes, it is customary to use one of the morphs which represents the morpheme in question and to put it between braces. Thus {big} is the morpheme which is represented

in phonological substances by /big/ and in orthographic substance by big; and the went (phonologically /went/), which can not be segmented into morphs, represents the combination of the two morphemes {go} and {ed}.

Although we shall follow this

convention, it must be realized that the particular notation chosen to refer to morphemes is a matter of arbitrary decision. 2.5. Allomorphs 2.5.1. Definitions A further point may now be made with regard to the relationship between morphemes and morphs. It frequently happens that a particular morpheme is not represented everywhere by the same morph, but by different morphs in different environments. These alternative representations of a morpheme are called allomorphs. For example, the plural morpheme in English, which we may refer to as {s}, is regularly represented by the allomorphs /s/, /z/ and /iz/. These are phonologically conditioned, in the sense that the selection of any one is determined by the phonological form of the morph with which it is combined. The present tense singular morpheme, which we can refer to as {z} ( in order to distinguish it from the morpheme {s} which forms the plural of English nouns) is regularly represented by the same three allomorphs as {s}. The past tense morpheme of English, {ed}, is

also regularly represented by three phonologically - conditioned allomorphs : /t/, /d/ and /id/. An allomorph could, therefore, be defined as any of the different (variant) forms of a morpheme. We have made a distinction between morpheme, morph, and allomorph. Such distinction is useful and essential if we wish to construct a general theory of language structure. As we shall see, in certain languages words can generally be segmented into parts (morphs), in others they can not; in some languages the morphs each tend to represent a single minimal grammatical unit (a morpheme), in others they do not; and in some languages each morpheme is usually represented by a segment of constant phonological form, whereas in others certain morphemes are represented by a set of alternant morphs (allomorphs) the selection of which in particular environments may be conditioned by phonological or grammatical factors. It is true that a good deal of what is often regarded as phonologically - conditioned allomorphic variation may be eliminated from the description by adopting a prosodic or distictive - feature analysis for the phonology.

But grammatically -

conditioned variation of allomorphs can not be eliminated in this way, and only a certain amount of phonologically - conditioned variation. The concept of the allomorph is therefore useful. It is,

however, the distinction between the morpheme and the morph, between the grammatical unit and its substantial representation, which is particularly important. For it is by making this distinction that we can bring out clearly both the grammatical similarity and the formational difference between such words as went and killed, or worse and bigger. 2.5.2. The Choice among Allomorphs: 2.5.2.1. Phonological Conditioning: If the choice between two or more allomorphs of a morpheme depends on the expression side of neighbouring elements, it is said to be “phonologically conditioned’ ( the “phonemically conditioned” or “phonetically conditioned” are also used). For example, the choice between the allomorphs /z/, /s/, and /iz/ of the English plural morpheme is determined by the final morpheme of the noun to which they are added. 2.5.2. Morphological Conditioning The occurrence of the English plural allomorphs /∂n/ or /∂n/ rather than /s/, /z/, or /iz/ does not depend on phonological factors but on particular linguistic signs (e.g., ox-envs. Box-es, schema-ta vs. Commas); the choice is “morphologically conditioned.” 2.6. The Theoretical Status of Morphemes and Allomorphs Morphemes can be referred to by their content or by the expression of one of the allomorphs; these labels are usually enclosed in

braces, for example, {possessive}, {progressive} or {z}, {ing}. For elements with grammatical meaning, the former notation is preferable, especially if another morpheme has an allomorph with the same expression. Morphs and allomorphs could be referred to by phonological substances put between two slanting lines, e.g. /big/, /s/, or by orthographic substances such as big. Historically, the term “morpheme” was coined by the Polish linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay in 1980, who used it in the above sense as well as for minimal signs. This ambiguity is still widespread; not infrequently, morpheme is defined as a “minimal meaningful unit “ but applied to a set of allomorphs. allomorphs a in complementary distribution.

These

Zellig Harris

clarified the terminology by distinguishing between “morpheme unit” and “morpheme alternant” (1942); Eugene Nida replaced the latter by “allomorph”. The term “morph” can be interpreted in many ways. However, for our purpose, when a word is segmented into parts, these parts are referred to as morphs. Sometimes a question arises about what the diference between the morpheme and the allomorph is, then on the level of abstraction, it is often said that morphemes are abstract elements of the language system whereas allomorphs are their concrete realizations in a speech act or text.

The relationship between phonemes and

allophones, and Saussure’s dichotomies langue / parole or form / subtance are sometimes mentioned in the context. 2.7. Types of Morphemes 2.7.1. Free Free morphemes are those which can be used as minimal free forms. They do not need to be attached to the other morphemes. They can be used as words. Free, king, surf, bore are free morphemes. 2.7.2. Bound 2.7.2.1. Some morphemes are bound, in that they must be joned to other morphemes.

They are always parts of words and never

words by themselves. - dom (in kingdom, freedom, surfdom, boredom), un- (in undesirable, unlikely..), and {s} (in books, stories, horses..) are examples of bound morphemes. 2.7.2.2. Bound morphemes can be affixes : prefixes, suffixes and prefixes.

Morphemes can be classified as derivational or

inflectional. Some morphemes, like huckle- in huckleberry and -ceive in perceive or receive, have constant phonological form but meanings determined only by the words in which they occur. 2.7.2.2.1. Derivational morphemes There are morphemes in English that change the category, or grammatical class, of words.

These are sometimes called

derivational morphemes because when they are coned to other

morphemes (or words) a new word is derived, or formed. And, as noted, the derived word may be in a different grammatical class than the derived words. Thus, when a verb is coned with the suffix -able, the result is an adjective, as in desire + able or adore + able. A few other examples are N to Adj

V to N

Adj to Adv

boy +ish

acquitt +al

exact + ly

virtu +ous

clear + ance

quiet + ly

Elizabeth +an

accus + ation

N to V

pictur + esque

confer + ence

moral + ise

affection + ate

sing + er

vaccin + ate

health + ful

conform + ist

brand + ish

life +like

Free + dom

Other derivational morphemes do not cause a change in grammatical class. Many prefixes fall into this category: a + moral

mono + theism

auto + biography

re + print

ex + wife

semi + annual

super + human

sub + minimal

There are also suffixes of this type: vicar + age

Trotsky + ite

long + er

Commun +ist

short +est

Music + ian

Americ + an

pun + ster

New words may enter the dictionary in this fashion, created by the application of morphological rules. Some of the morphological rules are very productive in that they can be used quite freely to form new words from the list of free and bound morphemes. The suffix -able appears to be a morpheme that can be freely coned with verbs to derive an adjective with the meaning of the verb and the meaning of -able, which is something like "able to be" as in acceptable, blamable..Other morphological rules of word formation are less productive . 2.6.2.2.1.1.The following is the list of some English derivational affixes 2.6.2.2.1.1. Prefixation: Negative prefixes Un-

Meaning 'the opposite of' 'not'

Added to adjectives participles

Non-

'not'

various classes

InDis-

(as for un-) (as for un-)

A-

'lacking in'

adjectives adjectives verbs abstract nouns adjectives nouns

Reversative or privative prefixes

Examples unfair unassuming unexpected non-smoker non-drip (pain) insane disloyal dislike disfavour amoral asymmetry

UnDeDis-

Meaning added to 'to reverse action' verbs 'to deprive of' 'to reverse action' verbs abstract nouns (as for un-) verbs participles nouns

examples untie unhorse defrost deforestation disconnect discoloured discontent

Pejorative prefixes: Mis-

Meaning 'wrongly' 'astray'

Mal-

'bad(ly)'

Pseudo-

'false, imitation'

added to verbs abstract nouns participles verbs abstract nouns participles adjectives nouns adjectives

examples misinform misconduct misleading maltreat malfunction mulformed malodorous pseudointellectual

Prefixes of degree or size ArchSuperOutSurSubOverUnderHyperUltra-

Meaning 'highest, worst'

added to examples nouns (mainly archduke, archhuman) enemy 'above, more nouns superman than, better' supermarket adjectives supernatural 'to do something verbs outrun faster, etc than (mainly intrans) outlive over and above nouns surtax lower than, less adjectives subhuman, than substandard too much verbs overeat participles overdressed adjectives overconfident too little verbs undercooked participles underprivileged extremely adjectives hypercritical extremely, adjectives ultra-violet beyond ultra-modern

Mini-

little

nouns

miniskirt

added to verbs nouns verbs abstract nouns

examples cooperate co-pilot counteract counterrevolution anti-missile anti-social

Prefixes of attitudes Co-

meaning with, t

Counter-

in opposition to

Anti-

against

Pro-

on the side of

nouns denominal adjectives adverbs nouns denominal adjectives

anti-clockwise pro-Common market pro-communist

Locative prefixes SuperSubInter-

Trans-

meaning added to 'over' nouns 'beneath, lesser in nouns rank' adjectives verbs 'between' denominal 'among' adjectives verbs nouns 'across, from one denominal place to another' adjectives verbs

examples superstructure subway subconscious sublet international intermarry interaction transatlantic transplant

Prefixes of time and order Fore-

meaning 'before'

Pre-

'before'

Post-

'after'

ExRe-

'former' 'again, back'

added to mainly verbs abstract nouns nouns adjectives nouns adjectives human nouns verbs

examples foretell foreknowledge pre-war(attribute) pre-marital post-war (attrib) post-classical ex- husband rebuild, re-

abstract nouns

evaluate, resettlement

Number prefixes Uni-, Mono-

meaning 'one'

Bi-, DiTriMulti-, Poly-

'two' 'three' 'many'

examples unilateral, monotheism bilingual, dipole tripartite multi-racial, polysyllabic

Other prefixes AutoNeoPanProtoSemiVice-

meaning 'self' 'new, revived' 'all, world-wide' 'first, original' 'half' 'deputy'

examples autobiography neo-Gothic pan-African prototype semicircle vice-president

Conversion prefixes Be-

meaning a-nouns

EnA-

b-verbs, adjectives, nouns nouns verbs

added to form participial adjectives transitive verbs verbs predicative adjectives

examples a-bewigged, bespectacled b-bedazzle, becalm, bewitch enslave afloat

2.6.2.2.1.1.2. Suffixation Noun---> noun suffixes Suffix Added to--> to meaning form [A] occupational -ster, -eer nouns--> 'person engaged personal nouns in an occupation or activity' -er nouns-->nouns varied meanings, eg'inhabitant of X'

examples gangster, engineer teenager, Londoner

[B] diminutive or feminine -let count nouns--> 'small, count nouns unimportant, -ette nouns--> nouns a-small, compact' b- 'imitation' c- 'female' -ess

animate nouns--> 'female' animate nouns nouns-->nouns

booklet, piglet kitchenette, statuette flannelette usherette waitress

-y,-ie daddy, auntie [C]status, domain -hood nouns--> abstract 'status' boyhood nouns -ship (as for -hood) 'status, condition' friendship, dictatorship -dom (as for -hood) 'domain, kingdom, condition' stardom -ocracy (as for -hood) 'system of democracy government' -(e)ry chiefly nouns--> a- abstract nouns a-'behaviour' a- slavery b- concrete count b-'place of b-refinery, nouns activity or abode' nunnery c- non-count c-'collectivity' c- machinery noun [D] Other -ing count nouns--> 'the substance of ling non-count nouns which N is composed' -full count nouns--> 'the amount mouthful count nouns whichN contains' Nouns / adjective--> noun / adjective suffixes Suffixes added to--> to meaning form -ite nouns(chiefly 'member names)--> community

examples of Israelite, socialite

-(i)an

-ese -ist -ism

personal nouns nouns (chiefly proper) ------->personal nouns, non-gradable adjectives (as for -(i)an) nouns/adjectives-> personal nouns/ adjectives nouns/adjectives-> abstract nouns

faction/type' 'pertaining to'

Indonesian, republican

'nationality' Chinese 'member of a socialist, violinist party, occupation' attitude, political idealism, movement communism

Verb--> noun suffixes Suffix -er, -or

-ant -ee -ation

-ment -al -ing

-age

added to-->to form verbs (mainly dynamic)--> nouns (mainly personal) verbs--> nouns verbs-->personal nouns verbs--> a- abstract nouns b-collective nouns verbs--> nouns (chiefly abstract) verbs--> nouns (chiefly count abstract) verbs--> a- abstract nouns b- concrete nouns

meaning

examples

agentive and driver instrumental receiver actor agentive and inhabitant instrumental disinfectant ive employee a- 'state, action' b-'institution'

a- exploration b- organization

'state, action'

amazement

'action'

refusal, dismissal

a-activity a-driving bresult of b-building activity verbs--> non- 'activity, result of drainage count abstract activity' nouns

Adjectives-->noun suffixes Suffix added to-->to form -ness adjectives--> abstract nouns -ity (as for -ness) Verb suffixes Suffix added to--> to form -ify nouns, adjectives--> verbs(chiefly transitive) -ize (BrE: also (as for -ify) -ise) -en adjectives--> verbs a- transitive b- intransitive Noun--> adjective suffixes Suffix added to-->to form -ful nouns(chiefly abstract)---> gradable adjectives -less nouns--> adjectives -ly nouns (chiefly concrete)--> gradable adjectives -like (as for -ly) -y

meaning

examples

'state, quality'

happiness

'state, quality'

sanity

meaning

examples

causative

simplify

causative

popularize

a- causative b- become X

a-deafen b- sadden

meaning

examples

'having..giving'

useful, helpful

'without'

childless

'having the cowardly quantities of...'

'having the childlike qualities of' nouns(chiefly 'like... covered creamy concrete non- with...) hairy count)->gradable adjectives

-ish

-ian

Suffix -al(also -ical)

nouns (chiefly proper and count)--> adjectives a- non-gradable a- 'belonging to..' a- Turkish b- gradable b-'having the b- foolish character of...' nouns (chiefly 'in the tradition Darwinian proper)--> of...' adjectives

used to form -ial, primarily nongradable adjectives -ic gradable or nongradable adjectives -ive(also -ative, gradable or non-itive) gradable adjectives -ous (also -eous, primarily -ious) gradable adjectives Other adjective suffixes suffix added to--> to form -able, -ible verbs (chiefly transitive)--> adjectives -ish gradable adjectives--> gradable adjectives -ed nouns or noun phrases--> adjectives Adverb suffixes Suffix added to --> to

examples criminal editorial musical heroic attractive, affirmative, sensitive virtuous, courteous, vivacious meaning

examples

'able / worthy to readable be V-ed' forcible 'somewhat...'

youngish

'having...'etc

balconied

meaning

examples

-ly

-ward(s) -wise

form adjectives--> adverbs of manner / viewpoint,etc. adverbs, nouns --> adverbs of manner/direction nouns--> a-adverbs of manner b-viewpoint adverbs

'in etc.

a...manner', happily, strangely

manner/direction

backward(s)

a-'in the manner a-crabwise of...' b-'as far as ... is b- weather-wise concerned'

(From Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987 :431-441) 2.7.2.2.2.Inflectional morphemes There are "bound" morphemes that are for the most part purely grammatical markers, representing such concepts as "tense," "number," "gender," "case," and so forth. Such bound grammatical morphemes are called inflectional morphemes : they never change the syntactic category of the words or morphemes to which they are attached. They are always attached to complete word; they never change the syntactic category of the words. Inflectional morphemes are closely related to the rule of syntax. Consider the forms of the verb in the following sentences: a. I sail the ocean blue. b. He sails the ocean blue c. John sailed the ocean blue. d. John has sailed the ocean blue. e. John is sailing the ocean blue.

In sentence b the s at the end of the verb is an "agreement" marker; it signifies that the subject of the verb is "third - person," is "singular," and that the verb is in the "present tense." It does not add any "lexical meaning." The -ed and -ing endings are morphemes required by the syntactic rules of the language to signal "tense" or "aspects." According to Nguyen Thi Hong & Nguyen Thi Anh Dao (1996), there are the following inflectional morphemes: a- present third person singular morpheme,e.g. books, boxes,oxen. b- Noun possessive morpheme, e.g. boy’s, men’s. c- present third person singular morpheme, e.g. eats, learns. d- present participle morpheme, e.g. eating, laughing. e- past tense morpheme, e.g. learned, ran. f- past participle morpheme, e.g. looked, eaten. g- comparative morpheme, e.g. nearer, younger, bigger. h- superlative morpheme, e.g. nearest, soonest. Inflectional morphemes differ from derivational morphemes in the following features: a- Category change: Inflection does not change either the grammatical category (part of speech) or lexical meaning of the word to which it is attached whereas derivational morphemes

can either change such

grammatical category as part of speech or the lexical meaning. Inflectional morphemes are grammatical markers of person, number, gender, case, tense, voice…. b- Final Position Inflectional morphemes occur at the end of words. They occur after derivational morphemes, if any. c- Productivity Inflectional morphemes are productive, in that they can be used with most words of the same part of speech.

Derivational

morphemes can either be productive or not productive. When we discuss the difference between inflectional morphology and derivational morphology, we could say that inflected words are influences by the syntax of the language, and the derived words are part of the lexicon or dictionary.

Words are inflected to mark

grammatical contrasts in person, number, gender, case, tense, and voice. 2.6.2.2.3. Lexical and grammatical morphemes Lexical morphemes express meanings that can be relatively easily defined by using dictionary or by pointing out examples of things, events, or properties the morphemes can be used to refer to : tree, red, exactly...

Grammatical morphemes have one (or both) of two characteristics. First, they express very common meanings, meanings which speakers of the language unconsciously consider important enough to be expressed very often.

Verb tense morphemes are an

example. English requires essentially every sentence to have a tense. Another example is morphemes expressing noun number (singular vs. plural); most nouns can be made plural, and most nouns, when used, are either singular or plural. Tense morphemes and the plural morpheme are thus grammatical. The other characteristic that grammatical morphemes may exibit is the expression of relations within a sentence (insstead of denoting things, properties or events in the world). The verb suffix -s for third -person-singular - present-tense, for example, besides indicating tense, marks "agreement" between subject and verb (with a present tense verb, a singular third - person subject calls for a verb ending in -s).

Another example is the use of the -'s

("possessive") suffix on a noun to indicate that the noun is the logical subject of a nominalized verb : Rob's driving. Some of the most commonly used grammatical morphemes in English are bound : for example, the three -s morphemes (plural, posseessive, and third -person-singular present tense on verbs-e.g., he sleeps), past tense -ed, -ing, comparative -er, superlative -est, and past participle -en (as in taken). Others are free - that is,

independent - words.

A few examples of free grammatical

morphemes are the, ive by, as, the infinitive marker to, that (as in We think that he will win), and "dummy" do (Who do you like?).

Free grammatical mophemes are also called function

words. 2.8. Roots and Stems Roots are basic single - morpheme forms to which affixes can be attached. In English most roots are free morphemes, but not all. For instance, the word chronology, chronic, and chronograph all contain the root chron- (meaning basically time), which is not free, but bound, because it never occurs alone as a word. Stems are also forms to which affixes can be attached. Stem differ from roots in that they may be made up of more than one morpheme. All roots are stems, but many stems are not roots (but contain them). Stems are sometimes created by the juxtaposition of two roots in a compound. Both baby and sit are roots (and stems), but babysit is a stem (but not a root) - because -er can be attached to it. 2.9. Morphophonemics 2.9.1.The rule that determines the phonetic form of the plural morphemes (morphophonemic alterations) has traditionally been called a morphophonemic rule, in that its application is determined by both the morphology and the phonology. When a morpheme

has alternative phonetic forms, these forms are called allomorphs by some linguists. Thus [z], [s], and [∂z] would be allomorphs of the regular plural morpheme, and determined by rule. The past tense rule in English, like the plural - formation rule, must include morphological information. Note that after a vowel or diphthong the form of the past tense is always [d], even though it is possible to follow a vowel or diphthong with a [t] as in tight, bout, and rote. When the word is a verb, and when the final alveolar represents the past tense morpheme, however, it must be a voiced [d] and not a voiceless [t]. The plural and past - tense formation rules both changed feature values of segments. In some cases different phonetic forms of the same morpheme may be derived by segment - deletion rules as in the pronunciation of the words sign and signature, design and designate, paradigm and paradigmatic. 2.9.2.The types of morphophonemic change which we shall briefly notice are ten: 2.9.2.1.Loss

of

phonemes

:

INNOKIOUS,

IMMODEST,

IRRELIGIOUS, ILLEGAL ( N in the morpheme -{IN} is dropped). 2.9.2.2. Addition of phonemes: LONG - LONGER ( /g/ is added ), /loηg∂/).

2.9.2.3.Simple consonant change: PERMIT - PERMISSIVE, EXTINCT - EXTINGUISH, ( /t/ - /s/; /ηkt/ - /ηg/ ), PATH PATHS (/θ/--->/δz/ ). 2.9.2.4.Assimilation: IMBALANCE,

{IN} {EN-}

->

{IM}

in

-> {EM-}

IMPOSSIBLE, in EMPOWER,

EMBITTER.... 2.9.2.5.Dissimilation:

{IG-}

replaces

{IN-}

before

some

morphemes beginning with /n/ as in IGNOMINIOUS. 2.9.2.6.Synthesis: especial kind of consonant change in English like /t/ + /j/ -> /tS/ in NATURE, /t/ + /j/ -> /S/ in ACTION, /s/ + /j/ -> /S/ in PRESSURE, /k/ + /j/ -> /S/ in MUSICIAN, /z/ + /j/ -> /dz/---- in VISION, /--/ + /j/ -> / ---/ in PARISIAN, /-d-/ + /j/ -> / dz / in PROCEDURE. 2.9.2.7.Change of syllabic vowel or diphthong in TAKE -> TOOK, SEE -> SAW. 2.9.2.8.Stress shift: SYNTAX - SYNTACTIC, IMPORT IMPORTANT. 2.9.2.9. Gradation: the change of “full” vowels and diphthongs to /i,i:,∂/ when the stress shifts away from the syllable, and the change of /i.i:,∂/ to “full” vowels or diphthongs when the stress shifts onto the syllable. For example: /-∂-/ -> / in INSTRUMENT INSTRUMENTAL, /a:/ - /-∂-/ in CIGAR - CIGARETTE.

2.9.2.10. Suppletion: BOX-> BOXES, OX -> OXEN, GO -> WENT, WANT -> WANTED. 2.10. Summary : We can summarize what we have been discussing regarding morpheme as a sound - meaning unit : 2.10.1. Morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit in a language. 2.10.2. Words can be divided into indivisible meaningful parts called morphs. 2.10.3. The allomorphs of a morpheme are different forms (variants) of a morpheme.

They are in complementary

distribution. 2.10.4. The choice of allomorphs in the English language is either phonologically conditioned or morphologically conditioned. 2.10.5. A morphemes may be represented by a single sound, such as the “without” morpheme A- in AMORAL or ASEXUAL, 2.10.6. A morpheme may be represented by a syllable, such as CHILD and -ISH in CHILD + ISH. 2.10.7. A morpheme may be represented by more than one syllable: by syllables, as in AARDVARK, LADY, WATER; or by three syllables, as ADELAIDE or CROCODILE; or by four or more syllables, as in SALAMANDER. 2.10.8. Two different morphemes may have the same phonological representation: -ER as in SINGER and -ER as in SKINNER.

2.10.9. A morpheme may have alternate phonetic forms; the regular plural /z/, which is either [z], [s], or [∂z]; SIGN in SIGN [sain] and signature [sign] or the different pronunciations of the morphemes HORMONIC

HARMONY, /

MELODY,

HARMONIOUS,

SYMPHONY

in

SYMPHONIC

/

SYMPHONIOUS, MELODIC / MELODIOUS. 2.10.10. For most of the lexicon, the different pronunciations can be predicted from the regular phonological rules of the language. Thus, MORALISERS is an English word composed of four morphemes : MORAL + ISE +ER + S. 2.11. How to Identify Morphemes in Unfamiliar Languages 2.11.1. One part of morphological analysis involves identifying morphemes in unfamiliar languages and determining the nature of the information that they carry. The key procedure to follow in working out on this sort of problem can be stated simply as follows: Identify recurring forms and match them with recurring meanings. Consider the following small sample of data from Turkish, consisting of four words along with their English translations: Some Turkish words /mumlar/ /toplar/ /adamlar/ /kitaplar/

candles guns men books

As you can see, the form /lar/ occurs in all four items in the sample. From the translation of these items, we can see that there is also a feature of meaning - namely, plurality - that is present in all four cases.

Using the procedure just stated, we therefore

hypothesize that / lar/ is the morpheme marking plurality in Turkish. Once this has been determined, we can then infer that /mum/ in /mumlar/ is also a morpheme (presumably with the meaning "candle"), that /top/ in /toplar/ is a morpheme (with the meaning "gun"), and so on. A larger sampling of Turkish data would confirm the correctness of these inferences. 2.11.2. In doing morphological analysis in unfamiliar languages, there are a number of pitfalls to avoid. For the type of exercise normally used at the introductory level, the following guidelines should prove especially useful: 2.11.2.1. Do not assume that the morpheme order in the language you are analyzing is the same as in English ( and in Vietnamese). 2.11.2.2. Do not assume that every semantic contrast expressed in English will also be manifested in the language you are analyzing. 2.11.2.3. Do not assume that every contrast expressed in the language you are analyzing is manifested in English. 2.11.2.4. that a morpheme can have more than one form (allomorph).

CHAPTER 3 . WORD-FORMATION 3.1. Definitions Word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech or writing. A word is a minimal free form. 3.2. Simple, Complex and Compound Words Structurally words are classified into compound words.

simple, complex and

3.2.1. Simple words are those made up of only roots, e.g. pen, lamp... 3.2.2. Complex words are those made up of roots + inflectional / derivational morphemes. e.g. pens, irregular, teacher... 3.2.3. Compounds are words composed from the combination of two or more free morphemes. There are many patterns of compounding,e.g. N+N (doorstop), Adj + N (greenhouse), N+Adj (winedark), Adj. + Adj. (blue - green), N+V (stagemanage)... 3.2.3.1. Noun compounds Subject and verb compounds sunrise ~ the sun rises

bee-sting

noun + deverbal noun

earthquake

very productive type

headache

rattlesnake ~ the snake rattles

flashlight

verb + noun

hangman

dancing girl ~ the girl dances

firing squad

verbal noun + noun

washing machine

Verb and object compounds sightseeing ~ X sees sights

air-conditioning

noun + verbal noun (number is brainwashing neutralized) dressmaking Very productive type story-telling Taxpayer ~ X pays taxes

gamekeeper

noun + agentive or instrumental noun record-player (Number is neutralized)

songwriter

Very productive type

window-cleaner

Bloodtest ~ X tests blood

count nouns : book review, haircut

noun + deverbal noun

non-count nouns : birth-control, selfcontrol

call - girl ~ X calls the girl

knitwear

verb + noun Chewing gum ~X chews gum

cooking apple

verbal noun + noun

spending money

Verb and adverbial compounds swimming pool ~ X swims in the typing paper pool adding machine verbal noun + noun walking stick Very productive type daydreaming ~ X dreams during the sun-bathing day sleepwalking noun + verbal noun handwriting

baby-sitter ~ X sits with the baby

factory -worker

noun + agentive noun

sun-bather daydreamer

homework ~ X works at home

boat-ride

noun + deverbal noun

daydream

most examples are count

gunfight

searchlight ~X searches with a light

dance hall

verb + noun

plaything

Verbless compounds windmill ~ the wind [powers] the hydrogen bomb mill motorcycle noun + noun toy factory ~ the factory [produces] oil well toys tear gas noun +noun bloodstain ~[produces] stains

hay fever

noun + noun

sawdust

doorknob ~ the door [has] a knob

shirt - sleeves

noun + noun

table leg

Very productive type

television screen

girl -friend ~ the friend [is] a girl

oak tree

noun+noun

tape measure

darkroom ~ the room [is]dark

hardboard

adjective +noun

man

frogman ~the man [is] like a frog

goldfish

noun+noun Very productive type

kettledrum tissue paper

snowflake ~ the flake [consists] of bread-crumb snow sand dune noun + noun astray ~ the tray [is] for ash

coffee time

noun+noun

facecloth

Very productive type

fire engine

Bahuvrihi compounds paperback ~[the book has] a paper back

noun+noun : blockhead, hunchback, pot-belly

adjective + noun A'bahuvrihi compound' names an loudmouth, paleface. entire thing by specifying some feature

3.2.3.2. ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS Verb and object compounds man-eating ~ X eats men

breath -taking

noun + -ing participle

heart-breaking

Verb and adverbial compounds ocean - going ~ X goes across oceans law - abiding noun + -ing participle

mouth-watering

Heartfelt ~ X feels it in the heart

handmade

noun +-ed participle

self-employed

Hard - working ~ X works hard

easy-going

:

fathead,

adjective / adverb + -ing participle good-looking quick-frozen ~ X is frozen quickly

far-fetched

adjective/adverb+-ed participle

new-laid

Verbless compounds class-conscious ~ X is conscious duty-free with respect to class homesick noun+adjective grass-green ~ X is green like grass

brick red

noun+adjective

sea-green

British-American ~ the British and bitter-sweet the Americans tly (made an deaf-mute initiative) adjective + adjective (coordination compound) Note: the first element of coordination compounds frequently ends in -o and is not itself an independent word, eg: psycholinguistics, Anglo-American.

3.3. Word Identification There are five tests of word identification : 3.3.1. Potential pause: If we say a sentence out loud and ask some one to repeat it very slowly with pauses, the pauses will tend to fall between words, and not within words. For example, the / three / little / pigs / went / to / market. But the criterion is not fool - proof, for some people

will break up words containing more than one syllable, e.g. mar / ket. 3.3.2. Indivisibility Say a sentence out loud, and ask someone to "add extra words" to it. The extra items will be added between the words and not within them. For example, the pig went to market might become the big pig once went straight to the market, but we do not have such forms as pi-big-g or mar - the - ket. However, this criterion is not perfect either, in the light of such forms as absoblooming - lutely. 3.3.3.Minimal free forms The American linguists Leonard Bloomfield (1887 - 1949) thought of words as "minimal free forms" - that is, the smallest units of speech that can meaningfully stand on their own. This definition does handle the majority of words, but it can not cope with several items which are treated as words in writing, but which never stand on their own in natural speech. 3.3.4.Phonetic boundaries It is sometimes possible to tell from the sound of a word where it begins or ends. In Welsh, for example, long words generally have their stress on the penultimate syllable, e.g."catref" home, "car'trefi" homes. In Turkish, the vowels within a word harmonize in quality so that if there is a marked change in vowel quality in the stream of speech, a new word must have begun. But there are many exceptions to such rules. 3.3.5. Semantic units In the sentence man eats food, there are plainly three units of meaning, and each unit corresponds to a word. But language is often not as neat as this. In I switched on the light, the has little "meaning", and the single action of "switching on" involves two words. 3.4. Word formation

In the development of a language, new words may be added to the vocabulary of the language by different processes, one of which is by means of word formation / word coinage. There are a variety of ways of forming new words in the English language. 3.4.1.Affixation : the addition of an affix to a base, with or without a change of word - class forming a new derivational word or an inflectional words : prefixation like UNFAIR, NONSMOKER, ENSLAVE, BECALM, suffixation like LONDONER, MOUTHFUL, BOOKS, HAPPIER. 3.4.2. Backformation : a process whereby a word whose form is similar to that of a derived form undergoes a process of deaffixation,i.e. the removal of an affix from an existing word like the verb TELEVISE was formed from the noun TELEVISION, TO BURGLE from BURGLAR, to TYPEWRITE from TYPEWRITER, to BABYSIT from BABYSITTER, ENTHUSE from ENTHUSIASM, to DONATE from DONATION, To ORIENT / ORIENTATE from ORIENTATION, to EDIT from EDITOR, to PEDDLE from PEDDLER... Backformation continues to produce new words in modern English. Two relatively recent products of this process are the verbs LIAISE from LIAISON and SELF - DESTRUCT from SELF - DESTRUCTION. The even more striking backformation ATTRIT, from ATTRITION, was often used by military officials during the recent Gulf War to refer to the decimation of Iraqi troops (as in The enemy is 50 percent attritted). It is not difficult to imagine new instances of backformation in English yielding forms such as CUSH (from CUSHY), CESSANT (from INCESSANT), SIPID (from INSIPID), HAIRDRESS (from HAIRDRESSER). The verb TUIT, a backformation from INTUITION, was recently heard on the radio. 3.4.3. COMPOUNDING : 3.4.3.1. A compound is a word or an expression that has a single meaning but is made up of two or more words, e.g. CRANE -

DRIVER,LANDLORD, ICY - COLD, HEADSTRONG, OVERTAKE, UPLIFT... Though two - word compounds are the most common in English, it would be difficult to state an upper limit : THREE - TIME LOSER, FOUR - DIMENSIONAL SPACE TIME, MOTHER - OF - PEARL. Spelling does not tell us what sequence of words constitutes a compound, since some compounds are spelled with a space between the two words, others with a hyphen, and others with no separation at all, as shown for example in BLACKBIRD, SILVER -EYE, SMOKE SCREEN. It is very often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from noncompounded word sequences. Thus REDCOAT, GREENHOUSE, LIGHTHOUSE KEEPER have the primary stress on the first part of the compound, whereas RED COAT, GREEN HOUSE, LIGHT HOUSEKEEPER do not. One of the interesting things about a compound is that you can't always tell by the words it contains what the compound means. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. Everyone who wears a red coat is not a REDCOAT. There is quite a difference between the sentences She has a red coat in her closet and She has a Redcoat in her closet. It is true, as noted above, that the two sentences sound different. But in BEDCHAMBER, BEDCLOTHES, BEDSIDE, and BEDTIME, BED is stressed in all of the compounds; yet a BEDCHAMBER is a room where there is a bed, BEDCLOTHES are linens and blankets for a bed, BEDSIDE does not refer to the physical side of a bed but the place next to it, and BEDTIME is the time one goes to bed. Other similarly constructed compounds show that underlying the juxtaposition of words, different grammatical relations are

expressed. A HUSEBOAT is a boat that is a house, but a HOUSECAT is not a cat that is a house. A BOUTHOUSE is a house for boats, but a CATHOUSE is not a house for cats, though by coincidence some cats live in CATHOUSES. A JUMPING BEANS is a bean that jumps, a FALLING STAR is a star that falls, and a MAGNIFYING GLASS is a glass that magnifies. But a LOOKING GLASS isn't a glass that looks, nor an EATINGAPPLE that eats, nor does LAUGHING GAS laugh. In all the examples given, the meaning of each compound includes at least to some extent the meanings of the individual parts. But there are other compounds that don't seem to relate to the meanings of the individual parts at all. A JACK - IN- A - BOX is a tropical tree, and aTURNCOAT is a traitor. A HIGHBROW doesn't necessarily have a high brow, nor does a bigwig have a big wig, nor does an EGGHEAD have an egg - shaped head. As we pointed out above , the meaning of many compounds must be learned as if they were individual simple words. Some of the meanings may be figured out, but not all. Thus, if one had never heard the word HUNCHBACK, it might be possible to infer the meaning. But if you had never heard the word FLATFOOT it is doubtful you would know it was a word meaning "detective" or "policeman," even though the origin of the word, once you know the meaning, can be figured out. 3.4.3.2. Compounds are, thus, different from free phrases due to their meanings and sometimes their stress patterns. There are many patterns of compounds with different relations between the compound elements: 3.4.4. CONVERSION: Conversation (or zero - derivation) is probably the most frequent single method of forming words in English. It is especially common in the speech of children. Conversion creates a new word without the use of affixation by simply asg an already existing word to a new syntactic

category. It is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without an addition of an affix. For example: 3.4.4.1.Verb--> noun 3.4.4.1.1. 'State' (from stative verbs to nouns) : doubt, love 3.4.4.1.2. 'Event / activity' (from dynamic verbs) : laugh, walk 3.4.4.1.3. 'Object of V': answer ('that which is answered'), catch 3.4.4.1.4. 'Subject of V' : bore ('someone who bores / is boring), cheat 3.4.4.1.5. 'Instrument of V' : cover ('something that covers things'), wrap 3.4.4.1.6. ' manner of V-ing': throw, walk 3.4.4.1.7. 'Place of V' : retreat, turn 3.4.4.2. Adjective ---> noun Miscellaneous examples are daily ('daily newspaper'), com ('comic actor'), (young) marrieds ('young married people' : informal). 3.4.4.3. Noun ---> verb 3.4.4.3.1. 'To put in / on N' : bottle, corner 3.4.4.3.2. 'To give N, to provide with N" : coat ('give a coat [of paint, etc] to'), mask. 3.4.4.3.3. 'To deprive of N': peel ('remove the peel from'), skin 3.4.4.3.4. 'To....with N as instrument': brake, knife ('stab with a knife') 3.4.4.3.5. 'To be / act as N with respect to ....' : nurse, referee 3.4.4.3.6. 'To make / change...into N' : cash, cripple 3.4.4.3.7. 'To (a) send / (b) go by N' : (a) mail, ship; (b) bicycle, motor 3.4.4.4. Adjective -->verb

3.4.4.4.1. (transitive verbs) 'to make (more) adj' : calm, dirty 3.4.4.4.2. (intransitive verbs) 'to become adj' (generally adjectives in Type A can also have this function): dry, empty 3.4.4.5. Minor categories of conversion. 3.4.4.5.1. Conversion from closed-system words to nouns: This book is a must for the student of aerodynamics 3.4.4.5.2. Conversion from phrases to nouns Whenever I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans (ie one of the horses which 'also ran' but was not among the winners) 3.4.4.5.3. Conversion from phrases to adjectives: an under-the - weather feeling ~ I feel very under-the-weather (ie indisposed). 3.4.4.5.4. Conversion from affixes to nouns: Patriotism, and any other isms you'd like to name 3.4.4.6. Change of secondary word-class: nouns. 3.4.4.6.1. Non-count ---> count 3.4.4.6.1.1. ' A unit of N' : two coffees ('cups of coffee') 3.4.4.6.1.2. ' A kind of N' : Some paints are more lasting than others 3.4.4.6.1.3. ' An instance of N' ( with abstract nouns) : a difficulty 3.4.4.6.2. Count ---> non-count 'N viewed in of a measurable extent' (normally only after expressions of amount) : a few square feet of floor. 3.4.4.6.3. Proper ---> common (initial capital usually retained) 3.4.4.6.3.1. 'A member of the class typified by N' : Jeremiah ('a gloomy prophet').

3.4.4.6.3.2. ' A person, place, etc called N' : there are several Cambridges ('places called Cambridge') in the world. 3.4.4.6.3.3. ' A product of N or a sample or collection of N's work': a Rolls Royce ('a car manufactured by Rolls Royce'), a Renoir, a (complete) Shakespeare. 3.4.4.6.3.4. 'Something associated with N': wellington, a sandwich 3.4.4.6.4. Stative --> dynamic He's being a fool ('he's behaving like a fool') 3.4.4.7.Change of secondary word-class : verbs 3.4.4.7.1. Intransitive ---> transitive 'Cause to V' : run the water 3.4.4.7.2. Transitive --> intransitive 3.4.4.7.2.1. 'Can be V-ed' (often followed by an adverb such as well or badly) : Your book reads well. 3.4.4.7.2. 2. 'To V oneself' : have you washed yet ? ('washed yourself') 3.4.4.7.2.3. 'To V someone / something/etc' : We have eaten already 3.4.4.7.2.4. 'To be V-ed' : the door opened. 3.4.4.7.3. intransitive --> intensive 3.4.4.7.3.1. Current meaning : He lay flat 3.4.4.7.3.2. Resulting meaning : He fell flat. 3.4.4.7.4. Intensive --> intransitive The milk turned (ie 'turned sour') 3.4.4.7.5.Monotransitive --> complex transitive

3.4.4.7.5.1. Current meaning : We catch them young 3.4.4.7.5.2. Resulting meaning : I wiped it clean. 3.4.4.8. Change of secondary word-class : adjectives 3.4.4.8.1. Non-gradable -->gradable I have a very legal turn of mind. 3.4.4.8.2. Stative --> dynamic He's just being friendly ('acting in a friendly manner'). 3.4.4.9. Approximate conversion : voicing and stress shift 3.4.4.9.1. Voicing of final consonants (noun---> verb) advice-->advise, thief--->thieve, house---> house 3.4.4.9.2. Shift of stress When verbs of two syllables are convertyed into nouns, the stress is sometimes shifted from the second to the first syllable: conduct, conflict, contrast, convert, convict... 3.4.5. CLIPPING / ABBREVIATION : Clipping is a process whereby a new word is created by shortening a polysyllabic word. This process, which seems especially popular among students, has yielded forms such as PROF for PROFESSOR, PHYS-ED for PHYSICAL EDUCATION, AD for MENT, and POLI - SCI for POLITICAL SCIENCE. A number of such abbreviations have been accepted in general useage : DOC, AUTO, LAB,SUB, BIKE, PORN, BURGER and PREP . The most common abbreviations occur in names - such as LIZ, RON, KATHY, and LYN. Clipping involves the shortening which may occur at (a) the beginning of the old word like PHONE
3.4.6. ACRONYMS are words formed from the initial sounds or letters (or larger parts) of words. New acronyms are freely produced, particularly for names of organizations. Acronyms pronounced as sequences of letters can be called “alphabetisms” C.O.D. (cash

* the letters represent full words like on delivery), UN (the United Nations),

* the letters represent elements in a compound or just parts of a word like TV (television), GHQ (General Headquarters) Many acronyms are pronounced as words like RADAR (radio detecting and ranging). In acronymy where the combined initial letters follow the pronunciation patterns of English, the string can be pronounced as a word, such as NATO (North Alantic Treaty Organization). However, if it happens to be unpronounceable, then each letter is sounded out separately (RBI for run batted in, UNH for University of New Hamshire, NFL for National Football League). In other cases, even if the combined initials can be pronounced, it may be customary to sound out each letter, as in NIV for New International Version (of the Bible) or UCLA for the University of California at Los Angeles. 3.4.7. BLENDING : Blends are words that are created from parts of two already existing lexical items. Well - known examples of blends include MOTEL from MOTOR HOTEL, BRUNCH from BREAKFAST and LUNCH, SELECTRIC from SELECT and ELECTRIC, TELETHON from TELEPHONE and MARATHON, DANCERCISE from DANCE and EXERCISE, and CHORTLE, coined by Lewis Carrol as a blend of CHUCLE and SNORT. Usually, the first part of one word and the last part of a second one are combined to form a blend. Sometimes, though, only the first word is clipped, as in PERMA - PRESS for "PERMAANENT PRESS".

3.4.8. REDUPLICATIVES are either identical or only slightly different like GOODY-GOODY (affected good), WALKIETALKIE, CRISS-CROSS, LOANH QUANH (around), BAP BUNG (to flicker), ROC RACH (to babble), RAO RUC (troubled). The most common uses of reduplicatives are * to imitate sounds like TICK-TOCK (of clock), * to suggest alternating movements like SEESAW * to disparage by suggesting intability, nonsense,insincerity, vacillation like HIGGLEDYPIGGLEDY, WISHY-WASHY *to intensify like TIP-TOP. In Vietnamese, all those words, so evocative and practically untranslatable, formed on the repetition of word or part of a word, are particularly common in literary language, especially poetry. 3.4.9.Common words from Proper names (see Conversion) : New words may be coined from names of actual people like SANDWICH, BOYCOTT, AMPERE, from the derivatives of personal names like CHAUVINISM, PASTEURIZE, PLATONIC, from the names of people in literature and methology like ATLAS, MERCURY, from the derivatives of them like HERCULEAN, ODYSSEY, from place names and the derivatives of place names or place names or place names which have different forms from those which are known to us today like CHAMPAGNE, CHINE, COLOGNE, JAPAN, PANAMA, SHANGHAI, TURKEY. 3.4.10.Onomatopoeic words : These are the words created to sound like the thing to which they refer. They may imitate the sound of animals, of natural phenomena.... Examples of of such onomatopoeic words in English include COCK - A -DOODLE DOO, MEOW, CHIRP, BOW -WOW, BUZZ, HISS, SIZZLE, and CUCKOO...

3.4.11. The invention of a completely new word such as the mathematical term GOOGAL[gug∂l]. Before 1955 the word GOOGAL did not exist as an English word. Now, at least among mathematicians and scientists, it is a word. The word was coined by the 9-year-old nephew of Dr. Edward Kasner, an American mathematician, to mean "the number 1 followed by 100 zeros," a number equal to 10100 .. The number existed before the word was invented, but no word represented this particular numerical concept. When the concept and sounds were united, a word came into being. In fact, from this word another word, GOOGOLPLEX, was formed to mean "1 followed by a googol of zeros." REVIEW 2 : 1 - How is morphology defined? 2- Discuss the following : morpheme, morph and allomorph. What are the three criteria for a morpheme to be a morpheme? How is the choice of allomorphs made? 3 - What are the types of morpheme in the English language? What are the differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes? 4 - Why are the rules that determine the phonetic forms of the plural morphemes called morphophonemic rules? 5 - What can a morpheme in the English language be represented by? 6 - How can we identify morphemes in unfamiliar language? 7 - What is a word? Give examples of (a) simple, (b) complex and (c) compound word in the English language. 8- Discuss and give examples to illustrate different types of wordformation in the English language. EXERCISES: 1- Consider the following words and answer the questions below:

a-fly

f-reuse

k-spiteful

p-preplan

b-desks

g- triumphed

l-suite

q-optionality

c-untie

h-delight

m-fastest

r- prettier

d-tree

I-justly

n-deform

s-mistreat

e-dislike

j-payment

o- disobey

t-premature

i-For each word, determine whether it is simple or complex. ii- Divide the words into morphs iii- Circle all bound morphemes. State whether they are derivational morphemes or inflectional morpheme. 2-Think of five morpheme suffixes. Give their meaning, and explain what types of stem they may be suffixed to, and at least two examples of each. Example : -er meaning : “doer of”; makes an agentive noun. Stem type: added to verbs examples : rider, “one who rides” teacher , “one who teaches” 3- Think of five morpheme prefixes. Give their meaning, and explain what types of stems they maybe prefixed to, and at least two examples of each. Example : a- meaning

: lacking in quality

stem type

: added to adjectives

examples

: “amoral” lacking in morals “asymmetric” lacking symmetry

4-Determine whether the following words in each of the following groups are related to one anather by the process of inflection or derivation:

a- go, goes, going, gone b-discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable. c-lovely, lovelier, loveliest d- Inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’. e- democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize. 5- The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes: a- The farmer’s cows escaped. b- It was raining. c- Those socks are expensive d- Jim needs the newer version. e- The strongest rower won. f- The pit bull has bitten the cyclist. g- She quickly closed the book. h- The alphabetization went well. 6- The folllowing data provide the possible forms of the regular past tense morpheme of English: a-walked

l-wheezed

b-cracked

m-fined

c-flipped

n-flitted

d-hissed

o-butted

e-kniffed

p-padded

f-hushed

q-loaded

g-munched

s- collided

h-drubbed

t- allowed

i-dragged

u-sowed.

j-jogged k-fudged

i- List the alternative forms of the past tense morpheme. ii- Which alternate makes the best underlying form? Why? iii- State in words the conditioning factors that for the presence of the alternate forms of the past tense morpheme. 7- Make the following words negative by adding negative prefixes: a- fair

f- tie

b- expected

g- content

c- smoker

h-conduct

d- favour

I- function

e- symmetry

j- intellectual

8-Think of five words which can be used with which of the following prefixes each. a-Fore-

b-Pre-

c-Post-

d- Ex-

e- Re

f- Out

9- Divide the following words into morphs: a- boyishness

b-desirability

c-undeveloped

d- antidisestablishmentarianism e- ungentlemanliness f-phonology 10- Indicate the wordformation process responsible for the creation of each word in column2: Column 1

Column 2

a- automation ------

automate

b- humid

humidity

------

c-stagnation, inflation ------

stagflation

d- love, seat

-----

love seat

e- ‘envelope

------

en’velope

f-typographical error ------

typo

g-aerobics, marathon -----

aerobathon

h- act

-----

deactivate

i- curve, ball

----

curve ball

j- perambulator

-----

pram

k- (a) comb

-----

comb (your hair)

l- beef, buffalo

-----

m-random access memory ------ n- Megabyte ---------- o-teleprinter, exchange p- influenza -------

beefalo RAM

meg ---------telex flu.

CHAPTER 4 . SYNTAX: 4.1. Syntax and Syntactic Rules Speakers of a language recognize the grammatical sentences of their language and know how the morphemes in a grammatical sentence must be arranged. All speakers are capable of producing and understanding an unlimited number of new sentences never before spoken or heard. They also recognize ambiguities, know when different sentences are paraphrases, and correctly perceive the grammatical relations in a sentence. All this knowledge, and much more, is ed for in the grammar by the rules of syntax. Syntax could be understood as the study of how words are arranged to show relationship of meaning within ( and sometimes between) sentences. The term comes from syntaxis, the Greek word for "arrangement". Most syntactic studies have focussed on sentence structure, for this is where the most important grammatical relationships are expressed. Syntax can be understood as the linguistic knowledge which concerns the structure of sentences. Hence, syntax can mean the study of how words are classified into the syntactic groups (parts of speech /word classes or syntactic categories), how words combine to form phrases (word groups), the syntactic structure types (the grammatical relations) in them, how phrases combine into clauses, clauses into sentences (independent clauses and complex sentences) and sentences into texts, and the syntactic rules which govern the formation of sentences and texts. The syntactic rules in a grammar must at the very least for: the “grammaticality” of sentences, • the ordering of words and morphemes,

• our knowledge of structural ambiguity, • our knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other, • our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical relations, • speakers' ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences. (Fromkin et al,1988 : 208) 4.2. Word classes, parts of speech , form classes and grammatical categories of major word classes. 4.2.1 - Word classes, part of speech and form classes 4.2.1.1. Since the early days of grammatical study, words have been grouped into word classes, traditionally labelled as the parts of speech. A word class is a group of words which are similar in function. Words are grouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms. 4.2.1.2. The syntactic categories of words and groups of words ( parts of speech) are revealed by the way they pattern in sentences. If you didn’t have knowledge of these syntactic categories, you would be unable to form grammatical sentences or distinguish between grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. 4.2.1.3. A sentence is not a group of words as words but rather a structure made up parts of speech. A part of speech in English is a functioning pattern. It cannot be defined by means of a simple statement ( like the traditional definition of nouns: a noun is the name of a person, place or thing). There is no single characteristic that all the examples of one part of speech must have in the utterances of English. All the instances of one part of speech are the “same” only in the sense that in the structure patterns of English each has the same functional significance.

Each part of speech is marked off from other parts of speech by a set of positions and a set of formal contrasts in the patterns of English single free utterances ( simple sentences). 4.2.1.4. Parts of speech is a grammatical classification of words on the basis of many types of criteria such as word order, prosody, function words, inflections, derivational, contrast, meaning, form ( how words change their forms, function ( how they combine with other words, the same functional significance, the same set of positions in the patterns of single free utterances each word has).Words could be divided into open word classes and closed word classes. The open classes in English are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The closed classes in English are articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries and conjunctions. In defining open word classes three types of criteria are useful: a-form, bfunction, and c-meaning. 4.2.1.4.1. Form The class of a word may be apparent from its form. Certain derivational morphemes are associated with certain word classes : for intances -ist with nouns. Certain inflectional suffixes are associated with certain word classes : for instances-s with nouns (men's), -ed with verbs (walked), -est with adjectives (sweetest). 4.2.1.4.2. Function The class of a word may be indicated by the way it functions in a phrase or sentence. For examle in the sentence He will not score any more runs unless he runs faster we recognise the first runs as a noun and the second as a verb because of their functions in the sentence. In this case there is no difference in form which would enable us to identify the word class. 4.2.1.4.3. Meaning Some words are commonly classified according to semantic type, such as abstract nouns (truth, kindness, beauty) and stative verbs (be, appear, resemble). Unfortunately meaning is not a reliable

guide, because there are many words which belong to more than one class (kick, love, drink), but whose meaning remains essentially the same. Meaning is therefore best regarded as secondary criterion, to be used in checking the purely grammatical criteria of form and function. 4.2.1.5.Let us consider the four open classes of English in of the three criteria of a-form, b-function, and c-meaning. 4.2.1 .5.1.Nouns : An English noun is a word for which any one (or more) of the following characteristics holds : a-Most nouns can change their form from singular to plural by adding - (e)s. They can occur immediately before, or including, the possessive morpheme (John's). b-They can function as the head word in a noun phrase functioning as subject, direct object, or indirect object. c-Nouns typically refer to physical entities : people, objects, substances, and so on. Such nouns are called concrete nouns; but there are abstract nouns, referring to states, qualities, and so on. Nouns can be classified into count/mass nouns, proper / common nouns, collective / individual nouns. 4.2.1.5.2. Verbs a- With the single exception of be, each verb in English has between three and five different forms (cut, cuts, cutting; jump, jumps, jumping, jumped; eat, eats, ate, eating, eaten). b- Verbs introduce verb phrases c- Verbs can express, among other things, actions (swim, speak), processes (hear, blush) and states (believe, signify). Verbs can be classified into lexical and auxiliary verbs(the latter can be classified into primary (do, have, be) and modal (can, may, must, will, shall, could, might, should, would, ought to, used to,

need, dare..). Lexical verbs can be classified into transitive and intransitive. Verbs can also be classified into dynamic (activity verbs, process verbs, verbs of bodily sensation, transitional event verbsand momentary verbs) and stative (verbs of inert perception and cognition and relational verbs). 4.2.1.5.3. Adjectives a- Most common adjectives, being gradable, can take the suffixes -er and -est (quicker, quickest). b-Adjectives occur either preceding the noun within an NP (the red pen) or outside the noun phrase which they modify, as part of the verb phrase (the pen is red). That is , they can be used either attibutively or predicatively. c- Adjectives denote attibute, qualities or properties. 4.2.1.5.4. Adverbs a- Most adverbs are formed by the addition of the suffix -ly to an adjective. b- Adverbs serve three different kinds of functions. Some modify adjectives and other words in of intensification (very slowly, totally ). Some apply to the whole sentence and express an attitude to it or a connection between it and another sentence (frankly, however) Most add some kind fof circumstantial information (of place, time, manner, and so on) to the sentence (here, forever) c- Advebial meaning is integrally related to adverbial function. The closed classes of words consist of conjunctions, articles, prepositions, pronouns and auxiliary verbs. The closed classes of words are mostly used to introduce phrases and clauses, and are best described in of their function within these larger units. They include articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunctions...

4.2.1.6. Words in English can be classified into form classes: class 1 words / nouns; class 2 words / verbs; class 3 words / adjectives; class 4 words / adverbs) and function words: 154 words: articles, demonstratives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, auxiliaries, qualifiers (VERY..), interrogators ( WHEN, WHO, WHATEVER...) sentence linkers ( HOWEVER, IN ADDITION ), negator (NOT), attention-claimers (HEY, OH ...), attention-signals ( YES, YEAH, UH-HUH ), responses (YES, NOT AT ALL, O.K. ) infinitive marker ( TO ), hesitators (WELL). A form class is a group of items which can be used in similar positions in a structure. For example, in the sentence: The ........ is here. Any word which can be used in the blank space belongs to form class 1. The...... is here is used as diagnostic frame. Using other frames words of form class 2, form class 3 and form class 4 are established. They belong to open class of words. The open classes are different from each other on the formal contrasts, the close classes are different from each other on their functions within phrases and clauses and on how they introduce these large units. The Vietnamese word classes are best described in of their functions within phrases and clauses. Each word class, especially open classes, is often described together with its grammatical categories: nouns ( number, case), verbs ( person, tense, aspect, voice, mood), adjectives and adverbs ( comparison). 4.2.2. Grammatical Categories of Major Word Classes 4.2.2.1. The notion of grammatical category The term category is used to denote a class of or division in a general scheme of classification. The word has a long history, tracing its origin back to Latin categoria and Greek kategoria originally meaning accusation, assertion, predication, and then taking on various more specialized meanings in logic, philosophy,

and mathematics, where it has been used for a variety of different kinds of specified class or set. In Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics the term "grammatical category" is used to refer to a class or group of items which fulfil the same or similar functions in a particular language. For example, case, person, tense, and aspect are grammatical categories. 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.2.1. Number Number is a grammatical distiction which determines whether nouns, verbs, adjectives,etc in a language are singular or plural. In English this is seen particularly in NOUNS and DEMONSTRATIVES. For example : singular

plural

count noun

book

books

demonstrative

this

these

Verbs

does

do

pronouns

he/she/it

they

4.2.2.2.2. Case 4.2.2.2.2.1. Case is a grammatical category that shows the function of a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. The form of the noun or noun phrase changes (by inflection ) to show the different functions or cases. Example 1 : Three Latin declensions (The lexeme Puella "girl" is feminine, Lupus "wolf" is masculine, Bellum "war" is neuter.) Singular

Nominative

puella

lupus

bellum

Vocative

puella

lupe

bellum

Accusative

puellam

lupum

bellum

Genitive

puellae

lupi

belli

Dative

puelae

lupo

bello

Ablative

puella

lupo

bello

Plural Nominative

puellae

lupi

bella

Vocative

puellae

lupi

bella

Accusative

puellas

lupos

bella

Genitive

puellarum

luporum

bellorum

Dative

puellis

lupis

bellis

Ablative

puellis

lupis

bellis

We shall not discuss the origin and significance of traditional names for the cases in Latin. It is sufficient to say that the most common function of the nominative is to mark the subject of the sentence; the vocative is the case of address, the accusative is used to mark the object of a transitive verb; the genitive is the case of possession; the dative marks the indirect object; and the ablative has a variety of functions, including that of marking the instrument with which something is done (e.g. the eqivalent of sword in the translation of I killed him with a sword).

4.2.2.2.2.2.Some languages have six cases. Others have fewer. Some have none at all. In these languages the functions shown by case may be shown by WORD ORDER or by PREPOSITION. Consider the following examples : (1) Bill died. (2) John killed Bill. (3a) John gave the book to Tom. (3b) John gave Tom the book. (4) It is harry's pencil. (5) John killed Bill with a knife. (6) Bill was killed by John with a knife. (7) John went to town with Mary. In (1) Bill is the subject, in (2) and (5) Bill is the (direct) object; in (2),(3), (5) and (7) John is the subject; in both (3a) and (3b) Tom is the indirect object; in (4) Harry is in the adnominal "possessive" relationship with respect to pencil; in (5) and (6) a knife has the instrumental function; in (6) John is agentive; and in (7) Mary has comitative function("in company with". 4.2.2.2.2.3. In English, it is simetimes asked how many cases there are. Some people wouls say there is only one case, others would say there is more than one case. One thing people would agree is that case in English could be shown by word order. As distinct from personal pronouns, English nouns have two - case system : the unmarked COMMON CASE (boy) and the marked GENITIVE CASE (boy's). Since the functions of the common case can be seen only in the syntactic relations of the noun phrase (subject, object, etc.), it is the functions of the genitive that need separate scrutinity. In many instances there is a functional similarity (indeed, semantic identity) between a noun in the genitive case and the same noun as head of a prepositional phrase

with of. We refer to the -S GENITIVE for the inflection and to the OF-GENITIVE for the prepositional form. For example : What is the ship's name? What is the name of the ship? 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.The choice of -s genitive: The following four animate noun classes normally take the -s genitive : 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.1.PERSONAL NAME : Segovia's pupil, George Washington's statue. 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.2.PERSONAL NOUNS : the boy's new shirt, the sister-in-law's pencil. 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.3.COLLECTIVE NOUNS: conviction, the nation's social security.

the

government's

4.2.2.7.2.3.1.4. HIGHER ANIMALS : the horse's tail, the lion's hunger. The inflected genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns: 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.5.GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES:

and

INSTITUTIONAL

Europe's fututre, the school's history. 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.6.TEMPORAL NOUNS a moment's thought, a week's holiday, today's business. 4.2.2.2.2.3.1.7.NOUNS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO HUMAN ACTIVITY the brain's total solid weight, the game's history, the mind's general development, science's influence 4.2.2.2.2.4. Choice of the of-genitive

The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns that belong to the bottom part of the gender scale, that is, especially with inanimate nouns : the title of the book, the interior of the room. In these two examples, an -s genitive would be fully acceptable, but in many instances this is not so : the hub of the wheel, the windows of the houses. 4.2.2.2.2.5.Case Grammar This is an approach to grammar which stresses the sematic relationships in a sentence. Case grammar is a type of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR developed by Fillmore. In case grammar, the verb is regarded as the most important part of the sentence, and has a number of sematic relationships with various noun phrases. These relationships are called cases. 4.2.2.2.3. Gender Gender is a grammatical category associated with nouns, verbs and adjectives. This is a grammatical distinction in which words such as nouns, articles, adjectives, and pronouns are marked according to a distinction between masculine, feminine, sometimes neuter, animate and inanimate. It should be ed that there is no necessary correlation between grammatical gender and sex. In German, spoon (der Loffel) is masculine, fork (die Gabel) is feminine, knife (das Messer) is neuter. The term gender itself derives from an extremely general word meaning "class' or 'kind" (Latin genus) : the three genders of Greek and Latin were the three main noun-classes recognized in the grammar. From the grammatical point of view, the nouns of Greek and Latin were classified into three genders in order to for two distinct phenomena : (i) pronominal reference, and (ii) adjectival concord (or agreement). for the same reasons, the nouns of French, Italian and Spanish are classified into two genders, the nouns of Russian and German into three genders and so on. Gender plays a relatively minor part in the grammar of English by comparison with its role in many other languages.

English makes very few gender distinctions. Where they are made, the connection between the biological category "sex" and the grammatical category "gender" is very close, insofar as natural sex distinctions determine English gender distinctions. It is further typical of English that special suffixes are not generally used to mark gender distinctions. Nor are gender distinctions made in the article. Some pronouns are gender - sensitive ( the personal he, she, it...), but others are not (they, some, these, etc.). The patterns of pronoun substitutions for singular nouns give us a set of ten gender classes as illustrated in the following figure:

personal Animate

Gender classes

Examples

Pronoun Substitutio n

A.masculin e

uncle

who - he

B. feminine aunt

who-she

C.dual

doctor

who-he/she

D.common

baby

whohe/she/?it

someone,so mebody(so me people)

which-it E. collective

nonpersonal

family

which-it who-they

F.masculin bull e higher animal

which-it

G. feminine cow higher animal

which -it

(?who)- he

(?who-)-she

something

inanimate

H. higher England organism

whichit/she

I. lower ant animal

which - it

J.inanimate

box

Personal masculine / feminine nouns These nouns are of two types. Type (i) has no overt marking that suggests morphological correspondence between masculine and feminine, whereas in Type (ii) the two gender forms have a derivational relationship. morphologically

bachelor

spinster

king

queen

unmarked for

brother

sister

man

woman

gender (Type i)

father

mother

monk

nun

gentleman

lady

uncle

aunt

morphologically

bridegroom bride

host

hostess

marked

duke

duchess

steward

stewardess

for

emperor

empress

waiter

waitress

gender(Type ii)

god

goddes

widower

widow

hero

heroine

usher

usherette

Personal dual gender This is a large class including, for example, the following:

artist

fool

musician

servant

chairman

foreigner

neighbour

speaker

cook

friend

novelist

student

criminal

guest

parent

teacher

doctor

inhabitant

person

writer

ememy

librarian

professor

For clarity, it is sometimes necessary to use a gender marker: boyfriend

girl friend

man student

woman student

Common gender Common gender nouns are intermediate between personal and non - personal. The wide selection of pronouns (who, he/she/it) should not be understood to mean that all these are possible for all nouns in all contexts. A mother is not likely to refer to her baby as it, but it would be quite possible for somebody who is not emotionally concerned with the child or is ignorant of or indifferent to its sex. Collective nouns These differ from other nouns in taking as pronoun substitutes either singular (it) or plural (they) without change of number in the noun (the army ~ it/they; cf: the armies~they). Consequently, the verb may be in the plural after a singular noun (though less commonly in AmE than in BrE): The committee(has/have) met and (it has/ they have) rejected the proposal. The difference reflects a difference in attitude: the singular stresses the non - personal collectivity of the group and the plural the personal individuality within the group.

We may distinguish three subclasses of collective nouns: (i) SPECIFIC : army, clan, class, club, committee, crew, crowd, family, flock, gang, government, group... (ii) GENERIC : the aristocracy, the bourgeoisie, the clergy, the elite, the gentry, the intelligentsia... (iii) UNIQUE : the Arab League, (the) Congress, ..... Higher animals Gender in higher animals is chiefly observed by people with a special concern (eg with pets). buck - doe

gander -goose

bull - cow

lion

cock - hen

stallion - mare

cat - bitch

tiger

- lioness - tigress

4.2.2.2.4. Person Person is a grammatical category which determines the choice of pronouns in a sentence according to such principles as : • whether the pronoun represents or includes the person or persons actually speaking or writing ("first person", eg I, we); • whether the pronoun represents the person or persons being addressed ("second person", eg you); • whether the pronoun represents someone or something other than the speaker / writer or the listener / reader ("third person", eg he, she, it, they). Traditionally, person is regarded as a category of the verb; and it is certainly marked in the inflexional form of the verb or verb phrase in many languages. In the English language it is grammatical to use a subject in the singular with a finite verb in the singular, and a subject in the plural with a finite verb in the plural. Thus person

has something to do with the problem of subject - verb concord in English. 4.2.2.2.5. Tense Tense is a grammatical category which show the relation ship between the form of the verb and the time of the action or state it describes. We use different forms of the verbs or different verbal expression to show whether an action happens/ed in the past, at present or in the future. 4.2.2.2.6.Aspect Aspect is a grammatical category which deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed, such as whether it is in progress, habitual, repeated, momentary, etc. English has two aspects : progressive and perfect. 4.2.2.2.7. Voice The ways in which a language expresses the relationship between a verb and the noun phrases which are associated with it. two sentences can differ in voice and yet have the same basic meaning. However, there may be a change in emphasis and one type of sentence may be appropriate. For example, in The wind damaged the fence. the wind is the subject of the verb damaged, which is in the active voice, while in The fence was damaged by the win. the fence is the subject of the verb was damaged, which is in the ive voice. The first sentence would be a suitable answer to the question : Did the wind damage anything?

while the second sentence would be a suitable answer to the question How did the fence get damaged? The so -called "agentless" ive,eg: The fence has been damaged. is used when the speaker or writer does not know or wish to state the cause, or when the cause is too obvious to be stated. 4.2.2.2.8. Mood Mood is a set of contrasts which are often shown by the form of the ver and which express the speaker's or writer's attitude to what is said or written. Three moods have often been distinguished : 4.2.2.2.8.1. indicative mood : the form of the verb used in declarative sentences or questions. For example: She sat down. Are you coming? 4.2.2.2.8.2.Imperative mood : the form of the verb used in Declarative Sentences . For example : Be quiet! Put it on the table! In English, imperatives do not have tense or perfect aspect but they may be used in the progressive aspect. For example : be waiting for me at five. 4.2.2.2.8.3.Subjunctive mood : the form of the verb often used to express uncertainty, wishes, desires, etc. In contrst to the indicative mood, the subjunctive usually refers to non - factual or hypothetical situations.

4.2.2.2.8.9.Comparison The form of an adjective or adverb which is used to show comparison between two things. In English adjectives and adverbs can be used in comparative and superlative degrees. 4.3. Phrases and Word groups. 4.3.1. The grammatical description of any language is made scientifically possible by isolating certain recurrent units of expression and examining their distribution in context. The largest of these units are sentences, which can be decomposed into smaller constituent units: first word groups, then the affixes and combining forms entering into the formation of words, and finally the phonemes of the language. 4.3.2. On the basis of the word classes of the constituent parts of the word - group, there are two different defining views : 4.3.2.1. A word-group is a combination of only lexical words (two or more lexical words). There might or might not be functions words in the group. 4.3.2.2. A word group is a combination of two or more words (lexical or grammatical). 4.3.3. On the basis of the syntactic relations between the words in the word-groups, there also exist two different views of the wordgroups: 4.3.3.1. Broad view : A word - group is a combination of two or more words with one of the following syntactic relations : subject predicate (or predication as discussed bellow), co-ordination and subordination. In another words, a word- group may contain one of the following four basic categories of syntactic structure (syntactic relations). Subordination could be considered as consisting of modification and complementation:

4.3..3.1.1. Structures of modification consisting of a head and a modifier: HUNGRY PEOPLE, HOME-TOWN, EASILY SUPERIOR. 4.3.3.1.2. Structures of predication consisting of a subject and a predicate: MONEY TALKS, SOLDIERS HAVE BEEN KILLED, SNOW KEPT FALLING. 4.3.3.1.3. Structure of complementation consists of a verbal element and a complement : BE CAREFUL, SPEAK TRUTH, LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOUR. This strucure could be seen as a structure with subordinate relation : the verbal element being the main element, and the complement being the subordinate element. 4.3.3.1.4. Structures of coordination consist of 2 or more elements (constituents). The constituents may be any grammatical units from single words to word groups. The ing may be accomplished by word order and prosody alone, or with the aid of coordinators: PINS AND NEEDLES, HOPE AND PRAY, NEITHER WAR NOR PEACE. 4.3.3.2.Narrow view : Word -groups are groups of words with the relation of subordination. In this manner it may be used with the same meaning and function as phrase. 4.3.4. Phrase is any group of words which is grammatically equivalent to a single word and which does not have its own subject and predicate. Phrases are word groups without predication. Clauses are word groups containing their own subjects and predicates. 4.3.4.1. Phrases can be classified on the basis of syntactic structure types (phrases of subordination (of modification or complementation) and phrases of coordination); on the basis of parts of speech (NP, VP, ADJ. P, AD. P, PREP. P, CONJ.P), on the basis of the existence of head/centre (endocentric / headed phrases: NP, VP, ADJ. P, ADV, P; exocentric/non-headed phrases: PREP. P, CONJ. P); ON THE BASIS OF MEANING (free

phrases: to PLAY FOOTBALL; set / fixed phrases or idioms; TO PLAY THE FIRST FIDDLE). On the basis of phrase structure grammar, transformational grammar, this grammar does not discuss word groups in isolation, but the analysis of sentences is based upon the concept on phrase-structure (NP & VP). 4.3.4.2. The structure of noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase. 4.3.4.2.1. Noun phrase: The noun phrase in English is composed potentially of three parts: Pre-modification ---- head-------post-modification. e.g. That old car in the drive. a- head : a noun or a pro noun. b- pre-modification : identifier-numeral / quantifier-adjective noun modifier, e.g. these five charming country cottage. i- identifier : articles, demonstratives, possessives ii- numeral / quantifier: * ordinal numeral + indefinite quantifier, e.g. the first few hours. *ordinal + cardinal, e.g. the second five days. *indefinite quantifier +cardinal numeral, e.g. several thousand people. There is a small group of words which may occur before the identifier called pre-determiners : all, both, half and fraction numeral,e.g. both / all the desperate terrorist. iii- Adjectives: Order: 1- epithet (charming), 2.size (small), 3-shape (round), 4age (old), 5- colour (brown), 6- origin (French), 7- substance (oaken), 8- present participle (writting). iv- Noun modifiers, e.g. a country garden.

Noun phrase in the genitive case, e.g. this delightful old gentleman’s scruffy bowler hat. c- Post- modification: i- Relative clause, e.g. the man who came here yesterday. ii- Non-finite clauses: * infinitive clauses, e.g. to answer this question. *present participle clause, e.g. expected to arrive at any moment. *past participle clauses, e.g. expected to arrive at any moment. iii- prepositional phrase, e. g. the man after me. iv- Adjective post-modification, e.g. blood royal, heir apparent, the morning after. 4.3.4.2.2. Verb phrase In the verb phrase all the elements are verbs of one kind or another. A verb phrase contains one lexical verb as head and may have up to four auxiliary verbs, besides the negative word not, as modifiers. The lexical verb is always the last element in the verb phrase; eg may not have been being interrogated, in which the lexical verb is interrogate and the other elements auxiliary verbs together with not. Amon auxiliary verbs we distinguish between primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) and modal auxiliaries (can, may, will, must, etc.). Auxiliary verbs serve to realize the grammatical categories associated with the verb phrase, especially tense, aspect and mood. The modal auxialiary, of which there may be only one in a verb phrase, always comes first if it is present and is followed by the infinitive (without to) form of the verb. The negative word always take up second position. the relative order among auxiliary verbs is as follows: modal - have - be (progressive)- be (ive). The first auxiliary in a verb phrase is called the operator, and has a number of special functions: marking the tense, changing place to

make questions, making the sentence negative with the word not, making the tag question... 4.3.4.2.3. Adjective phrase An adjective phrase may consist of: Pre-modification ---------head ---------Post-modification. a- Head : adjectives b- Pre -modification : an adverb, e.g. very, somewhat, rather, extremely, fairly, highly, beautifully (cool). Post- modification. i- prepositional phrase, e.g. very anxious about Jim’s health. ii- infinitive clause, e.g. very anxious to please. iii- that- clause, e.g. very anxious that no-one should accuse him of laziness. Adjective phrases have two functions : an attributive function and a predicative function. 4.3.4.2.4. Adverb phrase Adverb phrases have as their heads adverbs. An adverb is the minimal form of an adverb phrase; inddeed, many adverb phrases occur in the minimal form. An adverb may, however, be premodified: though post-modification is not found at all in adverb phrases. The only kind of pre-modifier occuring in adverb phrases is another adverb, usually of the same restricted set of intensifying adverbs as is found in the pre-modification of adjective phrases, eg. very quickly, quite wonderfully. However, as with adjectives, other adverbs may also function as pre-modifiers in adverb phrases, eg amazingly well, understandably badly. Adverb phrases have three uses or functions : adjunct, disjunct and conjunct. 4.3.4.2.5. Prepositional phrase

Prepositional phrases are unlike any of any of the other types of phrase : they do not have a head, and thus also do not have a minimal form consisting of just one word. A prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition and a noun phrase, eg in the garden, after the party. Both elements are obligatory and neither may substutute for the phrase as a whole, in the way that a head noun may substitute for a noun phrase. Phrases like the noun phrases are said to be endocentric, while a prepositional phrase is exocentric. An endocentric construction may be substituted for as a whole by one of its constituent units : eg a noun may stand for a whole noun phrase . In an exocentric construction no such substitution is possible, eg in a prepositional phrase both the preposition and the noun phrase must occur; one of them alone can not stand for the whole phrase. Prepositions have two functions : -purely syntactic relational function in relating a verb, adjective or noun to a following object or complement. -in case of verbs like blame on, blame for, wait for, look after, the preposition is often considered to be part of the verb : phrasal verb. EXERCISES: 1- Make an analysis of the following noun phrases in of the word classes that they comprise: a- five green bottles b- My third currant bun c- Jim’ many fatal mistakes d- All our many grievous sins e- An ugly large yellow submarine f- Plenty of delicious rice pudding g- This miscievous tax collectos’s grabbing hand h- his underrated musical talent.

i- Her blue collapsible silk umbrella. j- All our relations’ dirty screaming offspring 2- Analyse the following noun phrases in of the word classes or subclasses or other kinds of phrase or clause that comprise them a- The old cupboard with the blue handles. b- All the coal stacked outside the back door. c- The third unpleasant task to be assigned to me. d- The fourth place behind jim. e- The major upset of the year. f- The clearest instructions that anybody could have been given. g-This sudden disaster approaching us. h- All the eighty elderly engers in the front coach. i- Several irate gentleman farmers waiting for the priminister. j- A poor little boy who seems to be lost. 3- Identify the phrases in the following, and give an analysis in of the classes or subclasses of words that comprise them. a- a very earnest look. b- he sounds very interested in our proposal. c-Unfortunately, he is very busy now. d- A quite ridiculously worded statement. e- Is he certain of our . f- I am quite sure that he is certain to win. g- A rather baffling description. h- So, That makes it awkward to find. i- Astonishingly, he can walk very fast. j- He was rather concerned that no-one should know immediately.

4.4. Sentence Grammar English syntax focuses chiefly on the sentence. It helps us form grammatical sentences (all kinds of sentences) by providing us with the rules of syntax such as phrase structure rules, transformational rules, transformational rules of nominalization, it helps us find out ungrammatical sentences, explain grammatical but ambiguous sentences and paraphrase them with the knowledge of how each part of the sentence functions grammatically and the analysis on the basis of a branching diagram called a constituent structure tree. It also helps us produce and understand on infinite set of possible sentences which have never heard or read. 4.4.1. Sentence, utterance, and clause 4.4.1.1. An utterance is what is said by any person before or after another person begins to speak. An utterance may consist of: +one word like

A. Have you done your homework? B. YEAR.

+ one sentence like

A. WHAT’S THE TIME ? B. IT’S HALF PAST FIVE.

+ more than one sentence like A. LOOK, I’M REALLY FED UP. I’VE TOLD YOU SEVERAL TIMES TO WASH YOUR HANDS BEFORE A MEAL. WHY DON’T YOU DO AS YOU’RE TOLD ? B. But Mum, listen ... There are 3 kinds of utterances • a single minimum free utterance • a single free utterance,but expanded not minimum • a sequence of two or more free utterances.

A sentence is a single free utterance, minimum (simple sentence) or expanded (compound, complex sentence). It is not included in any larger structure by means of any grammatical device. 4.4.1.2. A clause is a group of words with its own subject and predicate (a finite verb, a non-finite verb or an implied verb), if it is included into a larger sentence. A clause forms a sentence (an independent clause = a simple sentence) or part of a complex sentence (dependent clauses) and often functions as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. Clauses are the principal structures of which sentences are composed. 4.4.1.3. In the history of linguistics at least four principal types of definition of the sentence are known: logical, psychological, phonetic and structural (grammatical) definitions. Here are the characteristics of the sentence: 4.4.1.3.1. A sentence may consist of one word or of groups of words with its own subject and predicate (with predication). 4.4.1.3.2.A sentence is an expression of a complete thought, an idea, a feeling, an emotion, a greeting, a phatic expression, a call ... by means of a word or words used in such form and maner as to convey the meaning intended. 4.4.1.3.3. A sentence is marked off by a certain utterance-final intonation pattern of 4 types: statement /. /, yes-no question /? /, wh-question / S / and exclamation / ! /. 4.4.1.3.4. A sentence is as much of the uninterrupted utterance of a single speaker as is included either between the beginning of the utterance and the pause which ends a sentence-final contour or between two such pauses. 4.4.1.3.5. A sentence stands between an initial capital letter and a mark of end puntuation.

4.4.1.3.6. A sentence is a single free utterance, minimum or expanded. It is not included in any larger structure by means of any grammatical device. Each sentence is an independent linguistic form. 4.4.1.3.7. In general, any sentence must have the following features: 4.4.1.3.7.1. predicativity,i.e. the relation of the thought (meaning) of a sentence to the situation of speech or to the use of the language. 4.4.1.3.7.2. modality, which is the speakers's or the writer's attitude to the action, the thing mentioned in the sentence from the viewpoint of reality or to the listener. 4.4.1.3.7.3. communicativity, which is the communicative purpose of the sentence. 4.4.2. Sentence Structure The structure of sentences can be analysed on different bases : the internal structure (the grammatical structure) or the functional structure of sentences (the communicative structure) 4.4.2.1.The Grammatical Structure of Simple Sentence 4.4.2.1.1. Aspects of Sentence Syntax. 4.4.2.1.1.1. Hierarchy Hilary couldn't open the windows. One of the first things to do in analysing a sentence is to look for groupings within it - sets of words or morphemes that hang together. In this example, we might make an initial division as follows : Hilary / couldn't open / the windows.

Units such as couldn't open and the windows are called phrases. the first of these would be called a verb phrase, because its central word (or head) is a verb, open; the second would be called a noun phrase, because its head is a noun, windows. Other types of phrase also exist - adjective phrases, for example, such as very nice. Phrases may in turn be divided into their constituent word: couldn't + open

the + windows

And words may be divided into their constituent morphemes, if there is any: could + n't

window + s

This conception of sentence structure as a hierarchy of levels, or ranks, may be extended "upwards". The sentence can be made larger by linking several units of the same type : Hilary opened the windows, but David couldn't open the doors. Here, too, we have a sentence, but now we have to recognize two major units within it - each of which has a structure closely resembling that of an independent sentence. These units are traditionally referred to as clauses. In the above example, the clauses have been 'coordinated' through the use of the conjunction but. An indefinite number of clauses can be linked within the same sentence. A five - rank hierarchy is a widely used model of syntactic investigation: sentences are analysed into clauses are analysed into phrases are analysed into

↑

sentences are used to build clauses are used to build phrases are used to build

words

↓

are analysed into morphemes

words are used to buld morphemes

Morphemes are the lower limit of grammatical enquiry, for they have no grammatical structure. Similarly, sentences form the upper limit of grammatical study, because they do not usually form a part of any larger grammatical unit. 4.4.2.1.1.2. Immediate Constituents One of the most widely used techniques for desplaying sentence structure is the use of immediate constituent (IC) analysis. This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps. At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. For example, to make an IC analysis of the sentence THE girl chased the cat, we carry out the following steps: • Identify the two major constituents, the girl and chased the cat. • Divide the next - biggest constituent into two, viz. chased the cat into chased and the cat. • Continue dividing constituents into two until we can go no further, viz. the girl and the cat into the + girl, the + cat, and chased into chase + the -ed ending. The order of segmentation can be summarized using lines or brackets. If the first cut is symbolized by a single vertical line, the second cut by two lines, and so on, the sentence would look like this: the/// girl/chase///-ed//the///cat However, a much clearer way of representing constituent structure is through the use of "tree diagrams": The

girl chased

the cat

The girl chased

the cat

The second kind of tree diagram is in fact the normal convention in mordern linguistics. Such representations of structure are very helful, as far as they go. But not all sentences are as easy to analyse in IC as this one. It is sometimes not clear where the cuts shoild be made (e.g. whether to divide the three old men into the + three old men or the three old + men, or the three + old men). More important, the process of segmenting individual sentences does not take us very far in understanding the grammar of a language. IC analyses do not inform us about the identity of the sentence elements they disclose, nor do they provide a means of showing how sentences relate to each other grammatically. To develop a deeper understanding of grammatical structure, alternative approaches must be used. 4.4.2.1.1.3. Phrase Structure. A good way of putting more information into an analysis would be to name, or label, the elements that emerge each time a sentence is segmented. It would be possible to use functional labels such as subject and predicate, but the approach that is most widely practised has developed its won terminology and abbreviations, so these will be used here. Taking the above sentence (S), the first division produces a noun phrase (NP) the girl and a verb phrase (VP) chased the cat. The second division recognizes a verb (V)

chased and another noun phrase the cat. The next divisions would produce combinations of determiner (DET) and noun (N) the + girl, the + cat. This is the phrase structure of the sentence, and it can be displayed as a tree diagram S NP

VP V

DET

The

N

girl

V

NP DET

N

chased the cat.

This kind of representation of the phrase structure of a sentence is known as a 'phrase marker' (or 'P - marker'). Phrase structures are also sometimes represented as labelled sets of brackets, but these are more difficult to read: [S[NP[DET the] [N girl]][VP[V chased][NP[DETthe][Ncat]]]] Phrase structure is thus the representation of the structure of a sentence. 4.4.2.1.1.4. Phrase - Structure Grammar Phrase - strucure grammar is a grammar which analyses the strucure of different sentence types in a language. It consists of phrase - structure rules which show how a sentence can be broken up into its various parts (constituents) and how each part can be expanded. The structure of a sentence can be illustrated by a diagram called a tree diagram. For example, the structure of the English sentence : The parrot shrieked noisily Can be shown by the simplified diagram:

S NP DET

VP

N

The

V

parrot

ADV

shrieked

noisily.

4.4.2.1.1.5. Phrase - Structure Rules The rules that determine the basic constituent structure of sentences are called phrase - structure rules. These rules state what every constituent can be composed of. Some are combinations of other constituents, while others consist of a single word or morpheme. In English a noun phrase (NP) can be an article (Art / Det) followed by a noun (N): NP Art

N

the

boy

The phrase structure rule that states this is: (i)NP----> Art N and it has two meanings: + A noun phrase may be an article followed by a noun. + An article followed by a noun is always a noun phrase. The right side of the arrow shows the linear order of the component constituents. The single constituent named on the left side of the arrow is the node from which all the righthand - side nodes branch down in a tree diagram. Phrase - structure rules are explicit. They state exactly what a constituent can be. Therefore,

insofar as (i) is concerned, an NP is not a noun followed by an article, nor does it occur in any of the following structures: Art

N

NP

NP

Art

N

N

Art

NP

Art

N

NP

N

NP

Art

All phrase - structure rules specify precisely the hierachical structure of constituents and the linear order of the elements they contain. Although an NP can be made up of an article plus a noun, among other things, neither an article nor a noun can contain further constituents. Articles and nouns occur at the bottom of trees and eventually have words or morphemes attached to them. If there were no other phrase - structure rules stating what an NP in English may be no sentence could include NPs like the big cat it since neither of these is simply an article plus a noun. We need other rules: NP----> Art Adj N NP ----> Pro These rules now specify that the following constituent structures are well - formed in English : NP Art

Adj

NP N

Pro

By implication, strings such as *the cat big and *the it are not NPs because such structures as

*NP

Art

*NP

N

Adj

Art

Pro

do not correspond to any NP phrase - structure rule in both linear order and hierarchical structure. We now have three rules for the NP constituent: NP -----> Art N NP -----> Art Adj N NP -----> Pro The second of these needs to be modified slightly, because it will not permit NPs such as the big white cat or a large red brick building. An interesting fact about NPs which include adjectives is that one can not determine the limit on the number of adjectives which can occur in an NP. We can not express this fact by using a special notation, parentheses with an asterisk, indicating that an NP may contain no adjective, one adjective, or more than one adjective NP -----> Art (Adj)* N We can now combine the three separate NP rules as shown below NP ----->

Art (Adj)* N Pro

The braces indicate that either the top or the bottom line may be chosen. If the top line is chosen, the constituent in parentheses may be present or absent. Phrase - structure rules must reflect precisely the linguistic knowledge that speakers have about the constituent structures of their language. Grammars of all languages have phrase - structure rules because all sentences in all languages conform to certain

constituent structures. There are, of course, many other phrase structure rules in the grammar of English: In English a verb phrase may consist of: i - A verb alone : The boy slept. VP -----> V ii - A verb followed by a noun phrase : The child found the puppy. VP ------> V NP iii - A verb followed by a noun phrase followed by a prepositional phrase : The woman put the cake in the cupboard. VP -----> V NP PP iv - A verb followed by a preposional phrase : The child laughed at the puppy. We have presented four separate phrase - structure rules for the VP. In each there is a verb after the arrow, which shows that every VP must have a verb; the verb may optionally be followed by an NP, or a PP, or both. If we again use parentheses around a category to mean " optional " ( as we did in the NP rule) we can express rules (i) - (iv) as single rule : VP -----> V (NP) (PP) Some prepositional phrases are : in the cupboard to the store with a light touch beneath a red blanket Every prepositional phrase contains a preposition followed by a noun phrase. This fact is stated in a phrase - structure rule as : PP -----> P NP

An important phrase - structure rule of English is : S -----> NP VP This rule correspond to what many schoolchildren learn as " Every sentence has a subject and a predicate." The rule explain why we recognize that the following are not sentences of English : The man (lacks a VP) Found it (lacks an NP) Found it the man (NP and VP in wrong order) The node S is always the top or root node of the phrase marker of a complete sentence, and it may occur within the tree also, as in the following : S NP

VP

Pro

V

S NP Pro

VP V

NP Art

They

say

you

love

the

N boy

In this phrase marker an embedded sentence follows the verb in a verb phrase. Such a sentence functions as a complement. The sentence you love the boy is a complement of the verv say. Both sentence nodes in the tree have an NP VP below them, comforming to the phrase - structure rule for sentences.

This phrase marker is a recursive structure. The constituents S and VP both recur. This recursion results from another another phrase - structure rule : VP -----> V S which is needed because the first VP node has a V and an S immediately below it. If we lokk at this rule together with the rule for S, we can see the source of recursion. (v)S -----> NP VP (vi)VP ------> V S Rule (v) has S on the left and VP on the right side of the arrow; Rule (vi) is just the opposite; it has VP on the left and S on the right side of the arrow. When two rules are such that two constituents occur on both the left and right side of the arrow they form a recursive pair of rules. We can have another phrase - structure rule : S -----> S (and S) * As in the rule for NPs we are using the abbreviation of parentheses followed by an asterisk to mean that no instance, one instance, or more than one instance of whatever is enclosed in parentheses may occur. In this case the rule states that S may be S, or S and S, or S and S and S, and so on. The rule we have posited is a recursive rule, because a basic element (S in this case) recurs. That is to say it is repeated as one of the constituents to the right of the arrow. Both recursive rules and recursive pairs of rules allow phrase markers to be very large (with no limit on size). Thus they reflect the ability which the speakers of a language possess to produce an infinite set of sentences with their finite brains and a finite set of linguistic rules. We now summarise all the phrase - structure rules for the grammar of English we have presented so far :

S -----> NP + VP NP -----> Art +(Adj)*+ N Pro VP -----> V (NP) + (PP) S PP -----> P

NP

S -----> S+( and S)* Sentences have structure and can be represented by constituent structure trees whose nodes are labeled with syntactic - category names. Such a representation is called a phrase marker and reveals three kinds of structural information about sentences : (i) linear order of words, (ii) grouping of words into structural constituents, (iii) the syntactic category of each structural constituent. 4.4.2.1.1.6 Transformational Rules Transformational rules are the rules which change a basic syntactic structure into a sentence - like structure. Another part of grammar (the phonological component) is needed to supply the rules for pronouncing a sentence (phonetic interpretation). These rules enabled the grammar to show the relationship between sentences that had the same meaning but were of different grammatical form. The link between active and ive sentences, for example, could be shown - such as the horse chased the man (active) and the man was chased by the horse (ive). The kind of formulation needed to show this is : NP1 + V +NP2 ------> NP2 +Aux + Ven +by + NP1 which is an economical way of summarizing all the changes you would have to introduce, in order to turn the first sentence into the

second. If this formula were to be translated into English, four separate options would be recognized : • The first noun phrase in the active sentence (NP1) is placed at the end of the ive sentence. • The second noun phrase in the active sentence(NP2) is placed at the beginning of the ive sentence. • The verb (V) is changed from past tense to past participle (Ven), and an auxiliary verb (Aux) is inserted before it. • A particle by is inserted between the verb and the final noun phrase. 4.4.2.1.1.7. Deep Structure and Surface Structure It has been proved that when we analyse sentences structurally, some sentences must be analysed with the help of two distinct rule systems - phrase structure rules, which determine the internal structure of phrasal categories, and transformations, which can modify these tree structures by moving an element from one position to another. If we think about this in of the architecture of sentence structure, the transformational analysis is claiming that there are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, called deep structure, is formed by the phrase structure rules in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties. As we will see, deep structure plays a special role in the interpretation of sentences. The second level of syntactic structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence. Called surface structure, it results from applying whatever transformations are appropriate for the sentence in question. The deep structure for both the sentence The boy will leave and the corresponding question structure Will the boy leave? is given in the following figure: S

NP

VP

Det

N Aux

V

the

boy will

leave

The deep structure for the question Will the boy leave and the statement The boy will leave. The surface structure for the question pattern is then formed by applying the Inversion transformation, yielding the following : Will the boy __ leave? ↑ In contrast, the statement pattern The boy will leave has a surface structure (final syntactic form) that looks just like its deep structure since no transformations apply. The following diagram depicts the organization of the syntactic component of the grammar as it has just been outlined. Phrase Structure Rules ↓ DEEP STRUCTURE ↓

← (subcategorization restricts choice of

Transformation

complements)

↓ SURFACE STRUCTURE

As this diagram shows, the grammar makes use of different syntactic mechanisms. Some of these mechanisms are responsible for the architecture of phrases (phrase structure rules), others for the determination of a head's possible complements

(subcategorization), and still others for the movement of categories within syntactic structure (transformations). 4.4.2.1.1.8 . Word Order The term word order is somewhat ambiguous, for it can refer to the order of words in a phrase, and to the order of multi - word units within a sentence. Given the sentence The cat sat on the mat both the following involve word - order problems - but they are of very different kinds: *cat the sat mat the on * sat the cat on the mat In the first sentence the word order is S + V + PP. A change in the word order will result in a different type of sentences. If we change the sentence The man is reading a book into A book is reading a man the latter is not acepted. In linguistic description, word - order studies usually refer to the second type of problem - that is, the sequence in which grammatical elements such as Subject, Verb, and Object occur in sentences. A great deal of attention has been paid to the way in which languages vary the order of these elements, as part of typological studies. Word order will be a more satisfactory way of classifying languages than the older morphological method. In comparing word orders across languages, it is important to appreciate that what is being compared is the basic or favourite pattern found in each language. For example, in English, we will encounter such sequences as : SVO the boy saw the man OVS Jones I invited - not Smith VSO govern thou my song (Milton) OSV strange fits of ion have I known (Wordsworth)

SOV pensive poets painful vigils keep (Pope) However, only the first of these is the natural, usual, unmarked order in English; the other all convey special effects of an emphatic or poetic kind. The same principle must apply in studying word order in all languages, but it is often not so easy to establish which is the normal word order pattern and which is the pattern that conveys the special effect. The mere fact of talking to a foreigner, for instance, might motivate a native speaker to change from one order to another, and it often requires great ingenuity on the part of the linguist to determine whether such stylistic changes are taking place. 4.4.2.1.2. The Simple Sentence 4.4.2.1.2.1. A Definition Simple sentences are the sentences consisting of only one clause. 4.4.2.1.2.2. Parts of the Sentence : Subject and Predicate Traditionally, a sentence may consist of two parts : subject and predicate. S

P

John

carefully searched the room

The girl

is now a student at a large university.

His brother

grew happier gradually

It

rained steadily all day.

He

had given the girl an apple

They

make him the chairman

The subject is what is being predicated, usually the doer of an action. It has a close general relation to " what is being discussed", the theme of the sentence, with the normal implication that something new (the predicate) is being said about a subject that has

already been introduced in an earlier sentence. determines concord.

The subject

4.4.2.1.2.3. Clause (Simple Sentence) Elements A sentence may alternatively be seen as comprising five units called ELEMENTS of sentence (or clause) structure : SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT, ADVERBIAL, here abbreviated as S, V, C, O, A. Examples are : John (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the room.[1] The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large university (A)[2] His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) gradually (A) [3] It (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all day (A)[4] They (S) make (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every year (A)[5] We shall see bellow that considerable variety is possible in realizing each element of structure. Indeed S, O, and A can themselves have the internal constituents of the sentences. She (S) saw (v) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O). His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friend (S) arrived (V)] (A) 4.4.2.1.2.4. Clause Types 4.4.2.1.2.4.1. Categories of Verbs There are different types of verb corresponding closely to the different types of object and complement. Sentences which have subject complements, have INTENSIVE verbs and all other sentences have EXTENSIVE verbs. The EXTENSIVE verbs are INTRANSITIVE if they do not permit any object and / or complement. EXTENSIVE verbs are otherwise TRANSITIVE. All TRANSITIVE verbs take a direct object; some like give permit an indirect object, and these will be distinguished as DITRANSITIVE. A few verbs, like make, take an object

complement and these are among the verbs referred to as COMPLEX TRANSITIVE. The rest are MONO TRANSITIVE. Verbs can be of stative use (they do not it the progressive). Others are called DYNAMIC verb (they it the progressive). 4.4.2.1.2.4.2. Clause Types Concentrating on those elements that are normally obligatory, we can usefully distinguish seven clause types : i - SVA

S

V intens

Mary ii - SVC iii - SVO

A place

is

in the house.

S

Vintens

Cs

Mary

is

S

V monotrans

kind / a nurse. Od

Somebody caught iv - SVOA S

V complex trans

I

put

v - SVOC S

Vcomplex trans

We have proved vi -SVOO S

Vditrans

She gives me vii -

the ball

S The child

Od

Aplace

the plate

on the table.

Od

Co

him

wrong / a fool.

Oi

Od

expensive

presents

V intrans laughed

4.4.2.1.2.4.3. Complementation. The elements Od, C, and A in the above patterns are obligatory elements of clause structure in the sense that they are required for the complementation of the verb. By this we mean that, given the use of a particular verb in a particular sense, the sentence is incomplete if one of these elements is omitted : *I put the book (Type SVOA) and *He resembled (Type SVO) are unacceptable.

In some cases, however, a direct object or object complement in one of these patterns may be considered grammatically optional : He 's eating - cf He 's eating an apple (Type SVO) He made her career - cf He made her career a success (Type SVOC) He's teaching - cf He's teaching German (Type SVO), He's teaching the boyss (german) (Type SVOO). Our approach, however, will be to regard these as cases of conversion, whereby a verb such as eat is transferred from the transitive to the intransitive category. Thus He's eating is an instance of clause - type SV rather than of SVO (with optional deletion of the object). 4.4.2.1.2.4.4. Optional Adverbials The patterns of 2.1.2.4.2. can be expanded by the addition of various optional adverbials. For example (optional adverbials are bracketed): SV :

(A)

S

V

(Sometimes) she SVA

(A)

sings

S

V

(In America) most students are SVOO

S

(A)

V

O

She (kindly) sent us

(A) (beautifully) (A) (now)

A on vacation.

O some photographs.

4.4.2.1.2.4.5. Transformational Relations One way of distinguishing the various clause types is by means of " transformational" relations, or relations of grammatical paraphrase. Clauses containing a noun phrase as object are distinguished by their ability to be converted into ive clauses, the object noun phrase assuming the function of subject (V = ive verb),

the subject appearing (if at all) in an optional by - phrase, symbolized here as [A]: Many critics disliked the play (SVOd) ↔ The play was disliked (by many critics) (SV[A]) Where the ive draws more attention to the result than to the action or agency, the "resulting" copula get frequently replaces be, though chiefly in rather informal usage : The window was broken by my younger son. I know how the window got broken. A more gradually achieved result can be sometimes expressed by become : With the age of time, the furniture became covered with dust. There is sometimes equivalences of the following kind : SV ↔ SVCs The baby is sleeping ↔ The baby is asleep Two loaves will suffice ↔ Two loaves will be sufficient SV ↔SVA He hurried ↔ He went fast SVCs ↔ SVA He is jobless ↔ He is without a job. 4.4.2.1.2.4.6. Intensive Relationship. An SVOC clause is often equivalent to a clause with an infinitive or that clause : I imagined her beautiful ↔ I imagined her to be beautiful I imagined that she was beautiful.

This equivalence shows that the O and the C of an SVOC clause are in the same relation to one another as the S and C of an SVC clause. The relation is expressed, wherever it is expressed at all, by an intensive verb. The intensive relationship is impotant in other aspects of grammar apart from clause patterns. It underlies, for example, relations of apposition. Further, we may extend the concept of intensive relationship to the relation of subject to adverbial and object to adverbial in SVA and SVOA patterns respectively. SVOO clauses can be transformed into SVOA clauses by the substitution of a prepositional phrase for the indirect object, with a change of order: She sent Jim a card ↔ She sent a card to Jim She left Jim a card ↔ She left a card for Jim. 4.4.2.1.2.5. Clause Elements Syntactically Defined 4.4.2.1.2.5.1. A SUBJECT • is normally a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function; • occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in questions; • has number and person concord, where applicable, with the verb phrase. 4.4.2.1.2.5.2. AN OBJECT (direct or indirect) • like a subject, is a noun phrase ar clause with nominal function; • normally follows the subject and the verb phrase; • by the ive transformation, assumes the status of subject. An INDIRECT OBJECT, where both objects are present, precedes the DIRECT OBJECT and is semantically equivalent to a prepositional phrase.

4.4.2.1.2.5.3. A COMPLEMENT (subject or object) • is a noun phrase, an adjective phrase, or a clause with norminal function, having a co-referential relation with the subject (or object); • follows the subject, verb phrase, and (if one is present) object; • does not become subject through the ive transformation. 4.4.2.1.2.5.4. An ADVERBIAL • is an adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase; • is generally mobile,ie may be added to or removed from a sentence without affecting its acceptability. 4.4.2.1.2.6. Clause Elements Semantically Considered 4.4.2.1.2.6.1. Agentive, affected, recipient, attribute The most typical semantic role of a subject is AGENTIVE; that is, the animate being instigating or causing the happening denaoted by the verb : John opened the letter. The most typical function of the of the direct object is that of the AFFECTED participant; ie a participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way : Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister The most typical function of the indirect object is that of RECIPIENT; ie an animate participant being ively implicated by the happening or state : I've found you a place. The role of the subject complement is that of attribute of the subject, whether a current or existing attribute (with a stative

verbs) or one resulting from the event described by the verb (with dynamic verbs). CURRENT ATTRIBUTE : He's my brother; He seems unhappy RESULTING ATTRIBUTE : He became restless : He turned traitor. The role of the object complement is that of attribute of the object. again either a current or resulting attribute: CURRENT ATTRIBUTE : I ate the meat cold; I prefer coffeee black. RESULTING ATTRIBUTE : They elected him President; he paited the wall blue. 4.4.2.1.2.6.2. Agentive, Instrumental, Recipient, Locative, Temporal, Eventive and Empty it subject Apart from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an INSTRUMENTAL role ; that is, it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) material cause of an event: The avalanche destroyed several houses. With instransitive verbs, the subject also frquently has the AFFECTED role that is elsewhere typical of the object : Jack fell down. The pencil was lying on the table. It is now possible to see a regular relation, in of clause function, between adjectives or intransitive verbs and the corresponding transitive verbs expressing CAUSATIVE meaning : S affected

V

S agent/instr

The door

opened

Saffected

V

C

V

John/The key

opened

S agent/instr

V

O affected the door. O affected

The road

became narrower. They

narrowed the road.

I

got

angered

angry.

His manner

me.

Sagentive My cat

V

was walking.

Sagentive

V

Oaffected

I was walking my cat.

Recipient subject: the subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own,possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation: Mr. Smith has bought/ given/ sold his son a radio ---> So now his son has / owns / possesses the radio. The perceptual verbs see and hear also require a recipient subject, in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive. The other perceptual verbs tast, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning corresponding to look at and a recipient meaning corresponding to see : Foolishly, he tasted the soup. Verbs indicating a mental state may also require a recipient subject I thought you were mistaken (cf It seemed to me...) I liked the played (cf The play gave me pleasure) Normally, recipient subjects go with stative verbs. Locative, temporal and eventive subjects The subject may have the function of designating place or time : This part is swarming with ants (=Ants are swarming all over this path) The bus holds forty people (=Forty people can sit in the bus) temporal subjects can usually be replaced by the empty it, the temporal expression becoming adjunct: Tomorrow is my birthday (=It is my birthday tomorrow) The winter of 1970 was exceptionally mild (=It was exceptionally mild in the winter of 1970)

Eventive subjects (with abstract noun heads designating arrangements and activities) differ from others in permitting intensive complementation with a time adverbial: The concert is on Thursday. Finally, a subject may lack semantic content altogether, and consist only of the meaningless "prop" word it, used especially with climatic predications : It's raining / snowing, etc. It's getting dark. It's noisy here. 4.4.2.1.2.6.3.Affected, Locative, Effected Direct Objects and Affected Indirect Object. The semantic types of direct objects are affected, locative and effected object. Examples are: Affected : The employer criticized the employee. Locative : The horse jumped the fence ('...jumped over the fence'). There are similar uses of such verbs as turn, leave, reach, surround, penetrate, mount, cross, climb..... An effected object is one that refers to something which exists only by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb: Baird invented television. I'm writing a letter. One may include in this category of effected objects also the type of object (sometimes called 'cognate') which repeats, partially or wholly, the meaning of the verb, as in sing a song. A more dubious category of object consists of phrases of extent or measure, as in:

He ran a mile. It costs ten dollars. It weighs almost a ton. A third type of effected object takes the form of a verbal noun preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, make, have, take, give. This construction is often more idiomatic, especially in colloquial English, than an equivalent construction with an intransitive verb. He did little work that day ('he worked little that day'). He made several attempts to me ('He attempted several times to me'). Affected indirect object There is only one exception to the rule that the indirect object has the role of 'recipient' : this is when give (or sometimes related verbs like pay, owe) has an 'effected' object as direct object and an 'affected' objects as indirect object: I paid her a visit ( 'I visited her') I gave the door a couple of kicks ('I kicked the door a couples of times'). These clauses, as the paraphrases make clear, are equivalent to clauses with a direct object as 'affected' object. 4.4.2.1.2.6.4. Summary

Although the semantic functions of the elements (particularly S and O) are quite varied, there are certain clear restrictions; such as that the object can not be 'agentive' or ' instrument'; that a subject (except in the ive) can not be 'effected'; that an indirect object can have only two functions - those of 'affected' and 'recipient'. The assignment of a function to the subject seems to have the following system of priorites: If there is an ' agentive', it is S; if not, If there is an 'instrument', it is S; if not, If there is an 'affected', it is S; if not, If there is a 'locative' or 'temporal' or 'eventive', it may be S; if not, The prop word it is S. Naturally, where the ive transformation applies, it transfers the role of the direct or indirect object to the subject. 4.4.2.1.2.7. Concord 4.4.2.1.2.7.1. Subject - Verb Concord The most important type of concord in English is concord of number between subject and verb. We are familiar with the rule that a singular subject is used with a singular verb and a plural subject is used with a plural verb. 4.4.2.1.2.7.1. Notional Concord and Proximity Two factors can interfere with concord : notional concord and proximity. Notional concord is the agreement of verb with subject

according to the idea of number rather than the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that idea. Thus the word government and family can be treated as plural nouns. The principle of 'proximity' denotes agreement of the verb with whatever noun or pronoun closely precedes it, sometimes in preference to agreement with the headword of the subject, e.g. No one except his own ers agree with him. 4.4.2.1.2.7.3. Collective Nouns In British English, collective nouns, notionally plural but grammatically singular, obey notional concord in examples such as the following where American English usually has the singular: The public are tired of demonstrations. The audience were enjoying every minute of it. The choice of singular verb or plural verb depends on whether the group is being considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of individuals. 4.4.2.1.2.7.4. Coordinated Subject When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases coordinated by and, a distinction has to be made between appositional and non - appositional coordination. Under non - appositional coordination we include cases that can be treated as an implied reduction of two clauses. These have a verb in the plural e.g. Tom and Mary are now ready. A singular verb is used with conings which represent a single entity,e.g. The hammer and sickle was flying from a tall flag pole.

With the less common appositional coordination, however, no such reduction is possible at all, for the coordinated structures refer to the samething. Hence, a singular verb is used ,i.e. This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected at the Queen's express wish. 4.4.2.1.2.7.5. Other Cases of Concord Either the Mayor or his deputy is bound to come. I've ordered the shrubs, but none (of them) have / has yet arrived. I sent cards to Mavis and Margery but neither (of them) has / have replied; in fact, I doubt if either (of them) is / are coming. There is also concord of person, of subject - complement, subject object and of pronouns. 4.4.2.1.2.8. Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts 4.4.2.1.2.8.1. Units Realizing Adverbial Functions The functions of the adverbial are realized by: • Adverb phrases, ie phrases with adverbs as head or sole realization : Peter was playing as well as he could.

We'll stay there. • Noun phrases (less common): Peter was playing last week. • Prepositional phrases: Peter was playing with great skill. • Finite verb clauses: Peter was playing although he was very tired. • Non - finite verb clauses, in which the verb is: - infinitive: Peter was playing to win. - -ing participle: Wishing to encourage him, he praised Tom - -ed participle If urged by our friends, we 'll stay. • Verbless clauses: Peter was playing, unaware of the danger. 4.4.2.1.1.8.2. Classes of Adverbials : Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts Adverbials may be integrated to some extent into the structure of the clause or they may be peripheral to it. If integrated, they are termed ADJUNCTS. If peripheral, they are termed DISJUNCTS and CONJUNCTS, the distinction between the two being that conjuncts have primarily a connective function.

An adverbial is integrated to some extent in clause styructure if it is affected by such clausal processes as negation and interrogation. Foe example, it is an adjunct if either (i) it cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause : *Quickly they didn't leave for home. or (2) it can be the focus of a question or of clause negation: Does he write to his parents because he wants to (or does he write to them because he needs money)? We didn't go to Chicago on Monday, (but we did go there on Tuesday). In contrast, a disjunct or a conjunct is not affected by either of these clausal processes. For example, the disjunct to my regret can appear initially in a negative declarative clause : To my regret, they didn't leave for home. and can not be the focus of a question or clause of negation: *Does he write to his parents, to my regret, (or does he write to them, to my relief)? *We didn't go to Chicago, to my regret, (but we did go there, to my relief) Items can belong to more than one class. For example, naturally is an adjunct in They aren't walking naturally ('in a natural manner') and a disjunct in Naturally, they are walking ('of course'). 4.4.2.1.2.8.3. Adjuncts:

4.4.2.1.2.8.3.1. Syntactic Features of Adjuncts Certain syntactic features are general to adjuncts. • They can come within the scope of predication pro - forms or predication ellipsis. For example, in John greatly ires Bob, and so does Mary The pro-form in the second clause includes the adjunct of the first clause, so that the sentence means the same as John greatly ires Bob, and Mary greatly ires Bob. • They can be the focus of li iter adverbials such as only: They only want the car for an HOUR. • They can be the focus of additive adverbials such as also : They will also meet afterwards. • They can be the focus of a cleft sentence: It was when we were in Paris that I first saw John. Adverb phrases can be used as adjuncts. They , as adjuncts, can often • constitute a comparative construction John writes more clearly than his brother does. •

have premodifying however to form the opening of a dependent adverbial clause:

However strongly you feel about it, you should be careful what you say. •

have premodifying how, a pro - form for intensifiers in questions or exclamations:

How often does she wash her hair? How cautiously he drives! •

have premodifying so followed by subject - operator inversion and a correlative clause:

So monotonously did he speak that everyone left. 4.4.2.1.2.8.2. Subclassification of Adjuncts. It is convenient to discuss adjuncts under classes that are essentially semantic. The following figures gives the classes and their subclasses.

Adjunct a - Viewpoint

e.g. Geographically, ethnically, and linguistically, these islands are closer to the mainland than to their neighbouring islands.

b- Focusing

(i)additive,e.g. also, either, even, neither, nor, too, as well as, in addition... (ii) limiter: * exclusives : alone, just, merely, only, purely, simply... *particularizers : especially, mainly....

c-Intensifier

chiefly,

(i)emphsizer,e.g. actually, certainly, clearly, definitely, in deed, obviously, frankly,

honestly, literally... (ii) amplifier : * Maximizers : absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, fully, qute, thoroughly, utterly.. * boosters : badly, deeply, greatly, heartily, much, so, violently... (iii) downtoner: *compromisers : kind of, sort of, quite, rather, more orless.... *diminishers : partly, slightly, somewhat, in part, to some extent, a little. *minimizers : a bit, barely, hardly, little, scarecely, in the least, at all... *approximators: almost, nearly, as good as, all but... d-Process

(i) manner : indiscriminately, with grat courtesy, in a carefree manner... (ii) means ,e.g. He decided to treat the patient surgically. I go to school by car. (iii) instrument, e.g. You can cut the bread with that

knife. e-Subject

(i) general subject,e.g. With great unease, they elected him as their leader ("They were very uneasy when they..."). (ii) volitional deliberately, purposefully, voluntarily...

subject,e,g, intentionally, reluctantly,

(iii) formulaic,e.g. cordially, graciously.... f- Place

kindly,

(i)position,e.g. He lives in a small village. They are not there. (ii) direction,e.g. He ran past the sentry. They followed him wherever he went.

g- Time

(i) when, e.g. today, afterwards, last year... (ii) duration, e.g. always, long, momentarily, permanently, temporarily, lately, recently, since... (iii) frequency: *Definite frequency,e.g. weekly, per week, once, again.... *

Indefinite

frequency,e.g.

normally, always, often.... (iv) relationship,e.g. finally, afterwards, first, later, next, originally, then.... h- Others

(i) purpose reason...

(ii)

cause

(iii)

4.4.2.1.2.8.3. Disjuncts Most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses. Disjuncts can be divided into two main classes : STYLE DISJUNCTS and ATTITUDINAL DISJUNCTS. Style disjuncts convey the speaker's comment on the form of what he is saying, defining in some way under what conditions he is speaking. Attitudinal disjuncts,on the other hand, comment on the content of the communication.

4.4.2.1.2.8.3.1. Style disjuncts Examples of the use of style disjuncts: Seriously, do you intend to resign? Personally, I don't approve of her. Strictly, nobody is allowed in here. There are twelve people present, to be precise. If I may say so, that dress doesn't suit you. The adverb phrase as style disjunct implies a verb of speaking of which the subject is the I of the speaker. Thus, very frankly in

Very frankly, I am tired is equivalent to I tell you very frankly. In a question,eg Very frankly, is he tired? the disjunct may be ambiguous. Here, very frankly corresponds to I ask you very frankly or to the more probable Tell me very frankly. Common adverbs as style disjuncts include : bluntly, briefly, candidly, confidentially, frankly, generally, honestly, personally, seriously. Style disjuncts normally appear initially. For some adverb phrases as style disjuncts, we have a series corresponding to them in other structures. For example, in place of frankly in Frankly, he hasn't a chance. We could put: prepositional phrase - in all frankness. infinitive clause frankly.

- to be frank, to speak frankly, to put it

-ing participle clause - frankly speaking, putting it frankly. -ed participle clause - put it frankly. finite verb clause - If I may be frank, if I can speak frankly, if I can put it frankly.

4.4.2.1.2.8.3.2. Attitudinal disjuncts Attitudinal disjuncts Attitudinal disjuncts convey the speaker's comment on the content of what he is saying. They can generally appear only in the declarative clauses: Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today. Understandingly, they were all annoyed when they read the letter. He is wisely staying at home today. They arrived, to our surprise, before we did. Of course, nobody imagines that he will repay what he borrowed. To be sure, we have heard many such promises before. Even more important, he has control over the finances of the party. They are not going to buy the house, which is not surprising in view of its exorbitant price. What is even more remarkable, he manages to inspire confidence in the most suspicious people. Many of the adverb phrases are paraphrasable by constructions in which the adjective base is suject complement, expressing an attribute of the subject. The subject is the content of the original sentences or (the more usual form) anticipatory it with the original sentence postposed: Unfortunately, Bob rejected the offer = That Bob rejected the offer was unfortunate. It was unfortunate that Bob rejected the offer.

Common adverbs as attitudinal disjuncts are given below in semantic groups. Group I : speaker's comment on the extent to which he believes that what he is saying is true. (i) These express primarily a subjective view on the truth of what is said, usually the view of the speaker : Certainly, they have no right to be there ('I am certain that...') He has probably left by now ('I consider it probable that...') Those expressing conviction : ittedly, certainly, definitelt, indeed, surely, undeniably, undoubtedly, unquestionably. Those expressing some degree of doubt : quite(etc) likely, maybe (informal), perhaps, possibly, pesumably, reportedly, supposedly. (ii) These present degrees of conviction as open to objective evidence : Obviously, they have no right to be there (It is obvious to me and to every body else that...') Those expressing conviction : clearly, evidently, obviously, plainly Those expressing some degree of doubt : apparently (iii) These refer to the reality or lack of reality in what is said: Those asserting the reality of what is said : actually, really Those expressing a contrast with reality : only apparently, ideally, officially, superficially, technically, theoretically. Those expressing that what is being said is true in principle : basically, essentially, fundamentally. Group II : Comment other than on the truth - value of what is said.

(i) These convey the attitude of the speaker without any necessary implication that the judgement applies to the subject of the sentence or indeed to the speaker. Thus, Fortunately, John returned the book yesterday might imply that John was fortunate in doing so or that someone was fortunate as a result of John's action. Other disjuncts of group II : annoying, curiously, fortunately, funnily enough, happily, luckily, naturally, not unnaturally, preferably, strangely, surprisingly, understandably, unfortunately, unhappily, unluckily. (ii) These convey the speaker's attitude, with an implication that the judgement applies to the subject of the sentence. Thus, Wisely, John returned the book yesterday implies that the speaker considers the action as wise and he also considers John wise for doing the action. Other disjuncts of this type are: rightly, wrongly, foolishly, wisely.

4.4.2.1.2.8.4. Conjuncts Most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases. Examples of the use of conjuncts are given below, followed by a list of common conjuncts, which are grouped according to their subclasses :

I'd like you to de two things for me. First, phone the office and tell them I am late. Secondly, order a taxi to be here in about half an hour. The following are subclasses of conjuncts: ENUMERATIVES : first, second, third...; first(ly), secondly, thirdly...; one, two, three; for one thing...(and ) for another (thing); for a start (informal); to begin with; in the first place, in the second place; next, then; finally, last, lastly; to conclude (formal). REINFORCING : also, furthermore, moreover, then (informal, especially spoken), in addition, above all, what is more. EQUATIVE : equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way TRANSITIONAL : by the way, incidentally SUMMATIVE : then, (all) in all, in conclusion, to sum up. APPOSITION : namely, in other words, for example, for instance, that is (often abbreviated to i.e. or ie in specialized written English), that is to say. RESULT : consequently, hence,so (informal), therefore, thus (formal), as a result.

INFERENTIAL : else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case REFORMULATORY : better, rather, in other words REPLACIVE : alternately, rather, on the other hand ANTITHETIC : instead, then, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison, (on the one hand...) on the other hand. CONCESSIVE : anyhow (informal), anyway (informal), besides, else, however, nevertheless, less, still, though, yet, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all, on the other hand, all the same. TEMPORAL TRANSITION : meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime. 4.4.2.2. The Functional Structure of the Sentence 4.4.2.2.1. THEME - RHEME 4.4.2.2.1.1.We may assume that in all languages the clause (the sentence) has the character of a message: it has some forms of organization giving it the status of a coomunicative event. But there are different ways in which this may be achieved. In English, as in many other languages, the clause is organized as a message by having a special status assigned to one part of it. One element in the clause is enunciated as the THEME; this then combines with

the remainder (the RHEME ) so that the two parts together constitute a message. 4.4.2.2.1.2.The THEME is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the clause is concerned, The RHEME the remainder of the message structure, therefore, a clause consists of a THEME accompanted by a RHEME; and the structure is expressed by the order-whatever is chosen as the THEME is put first. This THEME + RHEME structure is expressed by the following examples: - THE DUKE has given my aunt that teapot. - MY AUNT has been given that teapot by the duke. - THAT TEAPOT the duke has given to my aunt. ____________________________________ THEME

+

RHEME

_____________________________________ 4.4.2.2.1.3.The THEME is not necessarily a NP, like those examples above It may also be an ADVERBIAL PHRASE, or PREDESITIONAL PHRASE, such as the followings: -ONCE I was a real turtle. - VERY CAREFULLY she put him back on his feet again. - ON FRIDAY NIGHT I go backwards to bed. It means that the THEME can appear in all grammatical functions such as Subject (Unmarked Theme) : - HE bought a new house. Object:- REALLY GOOD COCKTAILS they made at that hotel.

Complement: - JOE his name is. Adverbial: I’ll die.

- IN LONDON I was born, and IN LONDON

Predication:

- BREAK HIS BLOODY NECK, I will.

Verb:

- DIE is the last thing I shall do, doctor.

4.4.2.2.1.4.The THEME can be seen in the following cases: - THE QUEEN OF HEARTS she made some tarts. - THE MAN IN THE WILDERNESS said to me. - FOR WANT OF A NAIL the shoe was lost. - WITH SOBS AND TEARS he sorted out those of the largest size. - TOM, TOM, THE PIPER’S SON stole a pig and a way did run. - WHAT THE DUKE DID WITH THAT TEAPOT was give it to my aunt. - THAT is the one I like. - THE ONES YOU NEVER SEE are the smugglers. - HOW CHEERFULLY he seems to grin. ( Exclamative clauses). - WHO killed Cock Robin? ( WH- interrogative clauses) - CAN YOU find me acre of land? (Yes / No interrogative clauses) - AFTER TEA will you tell me a story? ( marked them in interrogative) - SING a song of sixpence. (imperative clauses)

- IF THE DUKE GIVES ANYTHING TO MY AUNT it’ll be that teapot. - I don’t believe THAT PUDDING ever will be cooked. THEME - IT was his teacher WHO persuaded him to continue. THEME - ( I asked ) WHY no one was around. - “WHERE ? WHERE ? said Goody Fry. 4.4.2.2.1.5.The THEME is frequently marked off in speech by being spoken on a separate intonation contour, or tone group as it is called; it is especially likely when the THEME is either a/ an adverbial phrase or prepositional phrase, or b/ a noun phrase not functioning as Subject- anything other than the most common pattern. But even ordinary Subject Themes are often given a tone group to themselves in everyday speech. One tone group expresses one unit of information; and if a clause is organized into two information units, the boundary between the two is overwhelmingly likely to coincide with the junction of Theme and Rheme. 4.4.2.2. 2. We shall now turn to another aspect of the meaning of the clause, its meaning as an exchange. Simultaneously with its organization as a message the clause is also organized as an interative event involving speaker, or writer, and audience. The clause is used as an exchange of information. Four primary speech functions of the clause are defined: OFFER, COMMAND, STATEMENT AND QUESTION.

On this basis the clause consists of 2 constituents: Subject and Finite verb (element) are closely linked together, and combine to form one constituent which we call the MOOD. The MOOD is the element that realizes the selection of mood in the clause (modal element, modality). The remainder of the clause we shall call the RESIDUE (“Proposition”). The Residue consists of 3 kinds: Predicator, one or two Complements, and an indefenite number of Adjuncts up to, in principle, about seven. For example: Sister Susie

's

sewing

shirts

for soldiers.

_______________

________________________________

_________

____

_______

subject

finite

predicator complement

_______________ MOOD

______

_____________ adjunct

_________________________________ RESIDUE

4.4.2.2.2.1. The general principle behind the expression of mood in the clause is as follows. the grammatical category that is characteristically used to exchange information is the indicative; within the category of indicative the characteristic expression of a statement is the declarative, that of a question is the interrogative; and within the category of interrogative there is a further distinction between yes / no interrogative, for polar questions ( polarity is the choice between positive and negative) and WHinterrogative, for content questions. These features are typically expressed as follows: 4.4.2.2.2.1.1. The presence of the Mood element, consisting of Subject, plus Finite, realizes the features “indicative”.

4.4.2.2.2.1.2. Within the indicative, what is significant is the order of Subject and Finite: 4.4.2.2.2.1.2.1. The realizes“declarative”;

order

Subject

before

Finite

4.4.2.2.2.1.2.2. The order Finite before Subject realizes “yes /no interrogative”; 4.4.2.2.2.1.2.3. In a “ WH- interrogative” the order is: - Subject before Finite if the WH- element is the Subject; - Finite before Subject otherwise. 4.4.2.2.2.2. Why have Subject and Finite this special significance in the English clause? 4.4.2.2.2.2.1.The Finite element has the function of making the proposition finite. It relates the proposition to its context in the speech event. This ca be done in one of two ways. One is by peference to the time of speaking (primary tenses); the other is by reference to the judgement of the speaker (modality). Finiteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either temporal or modal. 4.4.2.2.2.2.2.The Subject supplies the rest of what it takes to form a proposition: namely, something by reference to which the proposition can be affirmed or denied. For example, in THE DUKE HAS GIVEN AWAY THAT TEAPOT, HASN’T HE ?, the Finite HAS spesifies reference to positive polaarity and present time, while the Subject THE DUKE spesifies the entity in respect of which the assertion is claimed to have validity. It is the duke, in other words, in whom is vested the success or failure of the proposition. He is the one that is, so to speak, being held

responsible-responsible for the functioning of the clause as an interactive event. The speaker rests his case on THE DUKE + HAS, and this is what the listener is called to acknowledge. 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.The Predicator has the fourfolded function: 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.1. It specifies time reference other than reference to the time of the speech event (secondary tense); 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.2. It spesifies various other aspects and phases like seeming, trying, hoping; 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.3. It spesifies the voice: active or ive;and 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4. It spesifies the process (action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of the Subject. for example, HAS BEEN TRYING TO BE HEARD. 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.1.The Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject but is not. For example, The duke gave MY AUNT THAT TEAPOT. 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.2.The Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential of being Subject. For example, My aunt was given that teapot YESTERDAY BY THE DUKE. There are Circumstantial Adjuncts (in the above example), Conjunctive Adjuncts (they tend to occur at points in the clause which are significant for textual organization, which means at some boundary or other:

4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.2.1. clause initial, as (part of) the textual theme; 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.2.2. clause final as afterthought; 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.2.3. between Theme and rheme; 4.4.2.2.2.2.3.4.2.4. betwwen Mood and Residue. For example, HOWEVER, such men don’t make good husbands. Such men don’t make good husbands, HOWEVER. Such men, HOWEVER, don’t make good husbands. Such men don’t, HOWEVER, make good husbands. Modal Adjuncts belonging to probability /obligation are CERTAINLY, PERHAPS, to usuality are ALWAYS, OFTEN .., to presumption are EVIDENTLY, OF COURSE..., to inclination are GLADLY, WILLINGLY ..., to time are YET, ALREADY ..., to degree are QUITE, ALMOST ..., to intensity are JUST, ONLY, ACTUALLY ...(those are Mood Adjuncts) and Comment Adjuncts like FRANKLY (issive), assertive: HONESTLY, WITHOUT ANY DOUBT, presumptive: APPARENTLY, NO DOUBT ..., desiderative: (UN)FORTUNATELY, TO MY DELIGHT ..., tentative: INITIALLY, LOOKING BACK ON IT,..., validative: BROADLY SPEAKING, ON THE WHOLE ..., evaluative: WISELY, UNDERSTANDABLY..., predictive: TO MY SUPRISE,BY CHANGE.

4.4.2.2.3.

4.4.2.2.3.1.On the basis of the third aspect of the meaning of the clause, its meaning as representation: usually when people talk about what a word or a sentence ‘means”, it is this kind of meaning they have in mind-meaning in the sense of content. In the above part we were looking at the clause from the point of view of its interpersonal function, the part it plays as a form of exchange between speaker and listener. In this part by contrast we shall be concerned with the clause in its ideational function, its role as a means of representing patterns of experience. Here again the clause is the most significant grammatical unit, in this case because it is the clause that functions as the representation of processes. Processes consist of “going-on”: of doing, happening, feeling, being. These goings-on are sorted out in the semantic system of the language, and expressed through the grammar of the clause. Parallel with its evolution in the function of mood, expressing the active, interpersonal aspect of meaning, the clause evolved simultaneously in the system of TRANSITIVITY expressing the reflective, experiential aspect of meaning. Transitivity specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the language, and the structures by which they are expressed. 4.4.2.2.3.2. A process consists potentially of three components: 4.4.2.2.3.2.1. the process itself typically realized by VP; 4.4.2.2.3.2.2. participants in the process realized by NP; 4.4.2.2.3.2.3. circumstances associated with the process realized by ADV.P, or PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE.

4.4.2.2.3.3.Processes belong to the following types and each type of process has its own functional structure: Process type

Category meaning

Participants

Examples

1) material

doing

Actor, goal

- The sprang

lion

a) action

doing

Actor

lion the

b)event

happening

Process

-The caught tourist.

Goal

-The tourist was caught by the lion. -The two schools combined. - The two schools were combined.

2) behavioural

behaving

behaver, process

- I weep for you. -The Turtle deeply

3) mental

sensing

senser

a) perception

seeing

phenomenon,

b) affection

feeling

process

c)cognition

thinking

Mock sighed

- It worries me how silent everything is. -I don't like it. - You needn't

be scared. -I know.believe you. 4) verbal

saying

Sayer, Target Process

I

- I'm always praising you (to my friends) - John said (he was hungry)

5)relaional

being

a)

Token, Value process

-King Louis was the King of . - My name is Alice

b) attribution

attributing

Carrier, Process Attribute

-john became a plumber -Pussy is in the well. -The poem concerns a fish. - Mr. garrick plays Hamlet.

c)identification identifying Identified, Process Identifier

- Sarah is the wise one. -By train is the best way. -the piano is owned by peter.

6) existential

existing

existent Process

- There was a storm. - On the wall there hangs a picture.

* In summary, the english clause is a composite affair, a combination of three different structures deriving from distinct functional components. These components are the ideational (clause as representation, expressed transitivity structures), the interpersonal ( clause as exchange, expressed by mood structures) and the textual (clause as message, expressed by Theme structures). 4.4.2.2.4. The Information Structure 4.4.2.2.4.1. All natural discourse in spoken English is made up of an unbroken succession of tone groups, and these in turn are made up of rhythm groups or "feet"; and these units function in the expression of meaning. The tone group is the unit of intonation. It functions as the realization of something else beside as a phonological constituent, namely unit of information in the discourse. Spoken discourse takes the form of a sequence of information units, one following the other in unbroken succession with no pause or discontuity between them. An information unit does not correspond exactly to any unit in the clause (sentence) grammar. A single clause may be mapped into two or more information units; or a single information unit into two or more clauses. The grammatical and the informational structures, however, are closely interconnected.

4.4.2.2.4.2.The INFORMATION UNIT is a unit of information. Information is a process of interaction between what is already known or predictable (the GIVEN) and what is new or unpredictable (the NEW)..Hence the information unit is a structure (the INFORMATION STRUCTURE) made up of two functions, the New and the Given. In the idealized form each information unit consists of an optional Given element accompanied by an obligatory New element. 4.4.2.2.4.3. The NEW is Marked by TONIC PROMINENCE. The element having this prominence is said to be carrying INFORMATION FOCUS. The GIVEN typically precedes the New. Information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable (Given) or not recoverable (New) to the listener. What is treated as recoverable may be so because it has been mentioned before; but that is not the only possibility. It may be something that is in the situation, like I and YOU; or in the air, so to speak; or something that is not around at all but that the speaker wants to present as given for rhetorical purposes. The meaning is : this is not news. Likewise, what is treated as non-recoverable may be something that has not been mentioned; but it may be something unexpected, whether previously mentioned or not. The meaning is : attend to this; this is news. -// the boy stood/ on the/ burning/ DECK// -I'll tell you about silver. //It/needs to have/ LOVE// ___________________________ :Given------------->NEW

:

___________________________ the neutral position of INFORMATION FOCUS is what we may call END-FOCUS, that is (generally speaking)chief prominence on the last open-class item or proper noun in the clause.

-Dylan Thomas was born in SWANsea. Special or contrastive focus, however, may be placed at earlier points : -/ Who was born in Swansea?/ Dylan THOmas was (born in Swansea) -/Dylan Thomas was married in Swansea, wasn't he?/ NO, he was BORN in Swan sea. -WILLIAM WORDSWORTH is my favourite English poet. (not William Skahespeare) - William WORDSWORTH is my favourite English poet. (not William Shakespeare) -/ A: I thought John worked hard./ B: But he DID work hard. (focus on the operator) // YOU can /go if you/ like// I'm not/ going// 4.4.2.2.4.4. There is a close semantic relationship betwwen information structure and thematic structure. Theme and information together constitute the internal resources for structuring the clause as a message. But although they are related, GIVEN + NEW and THEME + RHEME are not the same thing. The THEME is what I, the speaker, choose to take as my point of departure. The GIVEN is what you, the listener, already know about or have accessible to you. THEME + RHEME is speakeroriented, while GIVEN+NEW is listener - oriented ... But both are, of course, speaker-selected. -Are you coming back

into circulation?

---------- ------------------------------------THEME

RHEME

--------------------------------------<------------------NEW

-------------GIVEN

-I out)

didn't know I was

out

----

-----------------------------------

THEME

RHEME

(in my opinion I wasn't

--------------------------- --------------------THEME

RHEME

------------------------------------

---- --------

GIVEN <-----------------------------

NEW

- You

were to blame. It's you who were to blame.

------

-------------------- ---------- ----------------------

GIVEN

NEW

NEW

GIVEN

But in order that a sequence of a clause, or clause complexes, should constitute a TEXT, it is necessary to do more than give an appreciate internal structure to each. The knowledge of COHESION in a text is necessary. 4.5 . Kinds of Sentences : Sentences can be classified on many bases: 4.5.1. We have recognized a yet higher level than that of clause, that of sentence. Sentences, then, have a structure described in of clauses. And clauses may be related in two ways within sentences. They may be "co - ordinated" by means of such co -

ordinating conjunctions as and, but, and or, or by means of of a conjunction adverbs (eg. yet, so ), and here the relationship is a simple one of coning or co - ordination, eg. Jim likes wallflowers, but Penny likes magnolias. On the other hand, within a sentence one clause may be subordinated to another, giving the main and subordinate clause, or indepedent clause and dependent clause. Subordination is by means of a subordinating conjunction such as since, if, so that, because... The sentences with coordinate clauses are called compound sentences and the sentences with one main clause and one or more than one subordinate (dependent clauses) are called complex sentences. We have seen that sentences in the English language can be classified on the basis of the number and types of clauses. A simple sentences is the one which contains only one clause. A complex sentence is composed of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. A compound sentence is the one with two or more co-ordinated clauses. A compound - complex sentence (composite sentence) is a combination of compound and complex senteces. 4.5.2. Dependent (co-ordinate) clauses in complex sentences 4.5.2.1. Structural classification: Analysing by structural types (by the presence and absence of the verb, and by the types of verb) we arrive at three main classes of clauses: 4.5.2.1.1. Finite clause:

A finite clause is a clause whose verb element is a finite verb phrase. The finite clause always contains a subject as well as a predicate, except in the case of commands and ellipsis. There are distinctions of person, number, or modal auxiliary. eg. When John came, Mary was away. 4.5.2.1.2. Non - finite clause: As non-finite clause is a clause whose V element is a non-finite verb phrase. Non - finite clauses can be constructed without a subject, and usually are. The four classes of non - finite verb phrase serve to distinguish four classes of non - finite clause : 4.5.2.1.2.1. Infinitive with to: without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody. with subject everybody.

:

The best thing would be for you to tell

4.5.2.1.2.2. Infinitive without to without subject : All I did was hit him on the head. with subject to Mary.

: Rather than John do it, I'd prefer to give the job

4.5.2.1.2.3. -ing participle: without subject : Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. with subject : Her aunt having left the room, I declared my ionate love for Celia. 4.5.2.1.2.4. -ed participle:

without subject : Covered with confusion, I left the room. with subject finished.

:

We left the room and went home, the job

When the subject of the adverbial participial clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by with : With the tree growing / grown tall, we get more shade. 4.5.2.1.3. Verbless clause With the verbless clause, we can usually infer ellipsis of the verb be; the subject, when omitted, can be trated as recoverable from the context : Dozens of people were stranded, many of them children (many of them being children) Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument (whether he is right or wrong). Verbless clauses can also, on occasion, be treated as reduction of non-finite clauses: Too nervous to reply, he stared at the floor. (Being too nervous to reply...) As with participle clauses, the subject is often introduced by with : With the tree now tall, we get more shade.

4.5.2.2. Functional Classification of Dependent Clauses:

Dependent clauses may function as subject, object, complement, or adverbial in complex sentences: subject : that we need more equipment is obvious. direct object : I know that she is pretty. subject complement : The point is that we 're leaving. indirect object: I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. object complement : I imagined him overcome with grief. adjunct : When we meet, I shall explain everything. disjunct : To be honest, I've never liked him. conjunct : What is more, he has lost the friends he had.

4.5.2.3. Nominal clauses, Relative clauses, and Adverbial clauses. 4.5.2.3.1. That - clauses The that- clause can occur as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjectival complement. eg. Subject : That she is still alive is a consolation. 4.5.2.3.2. Wh- interrogative clauses The depedent wh-interrogative clause occurs in the whole range of functions available to the that-clause, and in addition can act as prepositional complement: subject : How the book will sell depends on its author.

4.5.2.3.3. Yes - no interrogative clauses: The depedent yes - no interrogative clause is formed with if or whether: Do you know if / whether the banks are open? 4.5.2.3.4. Nominal relative clauses: The nominal relative clauses, also introduced by a wh-element, can be : subject : What he is looking for is a wife. direct object : I want to see whoever deals with complaints. indirect object : he gave whoever came to the door a winning smile. 4.5.2.3.5. To-infinitive nominal clauses The to-infinitive nominal clauses can occur as subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, adjectival complement. Adjectival complement : I'm glad to help you. 4.5.2.3.6. Nominal -ing clause The nominal -ing clause, a participial clause, occurs in the following positions : subject, direct object, subject complement, appositive, prepositional complement. eg.subject : Telling lies is wrong. 4.5.2.3.7. Bare infinitive and verbless clauses The to of the infinitive is optionally omitted in a clause which supplies a predication corresponding to a use of the pro-verb do: All I did was (to) turn off the gas.

Turn off the tap was all I did. 4.5.2.4. Relative clauses: Relative clauses function as post-modifiers in noun phrases eg the old elephant which we saw yesterday. They linked to the head of the noun phrase by means of a relative pronoun. The choice of the relative pronoun is determined by two factors. Firstly, it is determined by whether the headnoun / antecedent is personal or non-personal. This factor basically determines the choice between who and which. Secondly, the form of the relative pronnoun is determined by the function syntactically of the pronoun within the relative clause : for example, in the man whom I visited yesterday, whom has the function object in the relative clause; in the sentence the elephant whose ear I tickled, whose has the function genitive. Also used as relative pronouns are that, when, where, why... 4.5.2.5. Adverbial clauses Adverbial clauses, like adverb phrases and prepositional phrases functioning as adjunct, give circumstantial information about an action or event, that is information about time, place, manner etc. eg He always sings when he is the bath. Conditional : If it rains today, we won't play football. Comparison clauses: Jane writes more neatly than Jim does.

Reason clauses : We can't go on holiday because we haven, any money. Contrast clauses : Although Albert doesn't have any money he is still going on holiday. Result clauses : The pictures were so dusty that no-one could see what they were. 4.5.2.6. Formal indicators of subordination: In general, subordination is marked by some indication contained in the subordinate rather than superordinate clause. Such a signal may be of a number of different kinds : it can be a subordinating conjunction ( simple subordinators : after,though, as, because, before, if, once, since, that. until, when, where,while,etc; compound subordinators: in that, so that, such that, except that, now that, provided that, as far as, sooner than, as if, as though; correlative subordinators: if...then, as...so, such...as, no sooner....than), a wh-element, the item that inversion, or (negatively) the absence of a finite verb form. 4.5.3. Compound Sentences A compound sentence is the one which contains two or more independent clauses which are ed by co-ordination. For example: He is a small boy but he is very strong. I'll either phone you or I will send you a note.

Compound co-ordination may be syndetic (when co-ordinators are present) or asyndetic ( when co-ordinators are absent). The coordinators may be and, or, but and other correlative conjunctions. 4.5.3.1.Semantic implications of coordination by and : And denotes a relationship between the contents of clauses. We can usually make the relationship explicit by adding an adverbial. We illustrate this with parenthesized items in most of the following examples. 4.5.3.1.1. The event is consequence or result of the first event in the first: He hear an explosion and (therefore) he phoned the police. 4.5.3.1.2. The event in the second clause is chronically sequent to the event in the first: She washed the dishes and (then) she dried them. 4.5.3.1.3. The second clause introduces a contrast. And could be replaced by but when this implication is present: Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid. 4.5.3.1.4. The second clause is a comment on the first: They disliked John - and that's not surprising. 4.5.3.1.5. the second clause introduces an element of surprise in view of the content of the first: He tried hard and (yet) he failed.

4.5.3.1.6. The first clause is a condition of the second: Give me some money and (then) I'll help you escape. 4.5.3.1.7. The second clause makes a point similar to the first: A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchane could be arranged. 4.5.3.1.8. The second clause is a 'pure' addition to the first: He has long hair and (also) he wears jeans. 4.5.3.2. Semantic Implications of Coordination by or: 4.5.3.2.1. Usually or is EXCLUSIVE, expressing the idea that only one of the possibilities can be realized: You can sleep on the couch, or you can go to a hotel, or you can go back to London tonight. 4.5.3.2.2. Sometimes or is understood as INCLISIVE, allowing the realization of a combination of the alternatives, and we can explicitly include the third possibility by the third clause: You can boil an egg, or you can make some cheese sandwiches, or you can do both. 4.5.3.2.3. The alternative expressed by or may be a restatement or a correction of what is said in the first con: He began his eduacational career, or, in other word, he started to attend the local kindergarten.

4.5.3.2.4. Or may imply a negative condition. Give me some money or I'll shoot. 4.5.3.3. Semantic Implications of Coordination by but But denotes a contrast. 4.5.3.3.1. The contrast may be because what is said in the second con is unexpected in view of what is said in the first con: John is poor, but he is happy. 4.5.3.3.2. The contrast may be a restatement in affirmative of what has been said or implied negatively in the first con: John didn't waste his time in the week before the exam, but studied hard every evening. 4.5.3.3.4. Either...or, both...and, neither....nor There are three common correlative pairs : either...or, where either anticipates the addition introduced by or; both....and, where both anticipates the addition introduced by and; and neither... nor where neither negates the first clause and anticipates the additional negation introduced by nor. 4.5.4. On the basis of the presence or absence of the two main parts in a sentence, we have Major sentences and minor sentences; S - P sentence, P- sentence, S- sentences, sentence words, shortened sentences.

4.5.5. On the basis of transformational grammar, there are kernel sentences of the following structures: NP + BE + N NP + BE + ADV.P NP + Vi NP + Vt

+ NP

NP + V

+N

NP + V

+ ADJ

NP + V

+ NP

and transformed sentences formed by the transformational rules. 4.5.6.On the basis of the normal order of the elements in the sentence for normal or emphatic purposes, there are normal sentences and inverted sentences or sentences including exclamations, the persuasive DO in commands, interjections, expletives, intensifiers, including the general clause emphasizers such as ACTUALLY, REALLY, INDEED, IVE voice, stress on operators, stress on SUCH, SO, reinforcement by repetition and pronouns, cleft sentences. 4.5.7. Sentences can belong to grammatical sentences, ambiguous grammatical sentences.

REVIEW 3 : 1 - What is syntax and what can syntactic rules for? 2 - How do you understand the term grammatical category and what are the grammatical categories in the English language?

3 - What is a word - group? Give examples of the four syntactic structures of the word - groups. 4 - What are the differences between the word - group and the phrase in the English language? How can we classify the English phrases? 5 - Discuss the definitions of the clause, the utterance and the sentence. What are the three features of the sentence? 6 - What is phrase - structure grammar? Discuss and give examples of the phrase - structure rules in the English language. 7 - What is a phrase - marker and what information does it explicitly reveal? 8 - What are the most important parts of the sentence? What are the sentence elements? Discuss the different types of subjects. 9 -Discuss the following : Theme - Rheme, Given - New. 10 - What are the differences between adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts as classes of adverbs? 11 - How are adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts classified? 12 - How can sentences be classified? 13 - Discuss the formal indicators of subordination. 14 - What are the different semantic implications of AND, BUT and OR? 15 - Identify the differences between kernels and transforms in the generative grammar. 16- Draw the tree diagrammes for the following sentences: a- He read a book b- She put the book on the table. c- You and I go together. d- The girl who loves John is beautiful.

e- My friend gives my brother a pen.

5- TEXT SYNTAX: Text syntax is concerned with the means of connection between sentences, usually between a sentence and what precedes, but also sometimes between a sentence and what follows. The syntax of the text is not the same, as the syntax of the sentences: It is concerned with the ways in which sentences connect with each other, and not with the structure of the texts. Textsyntax is concerned with the description of two kinds of phenomenon. Firstly, it describes the way in which the elements of a sentence become rearraged in order to bring particular elements into positions of focus or prominence as demanded by the other sentences in its immediate context. And secondly, it describes the various devices that are used to link one sentence implicitly or explicitly with the preceding one : these are known as devices of cohesion. Cohesion is considered as the formal links that mark various types of inter- clause and inter-sentence relationships within the text. In the following part we will discuss the devices of cohesion. There are five types of cohesion : reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. 5.1. Reference: a- Personal reference : by means of personal pronouns, possessive pronouns and possessive identifier (my, your…) b- Deminstrative reference involves the demonstratives, the definite articles and the adverb here, there, now and then.

c- Comparative reference: by determiners and adverbs. 5.2.Substitution a- Niminal b- Verbal c-Clausal 5.3. Ellipsis a- Nominal b- Verbal c- Clausal 5.4 Conjunction a- Additive b- Adversative c- Causal d- Temporal 5.5. Lexical a- Reiteration b- Collocation