English Grammar Book 2l2me

Table of contents

Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past

Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past ...Simple) Regular and Irregular Verbs The Present Perfect Differences between Present Perfect and ...Preterit* (Past Simple) Unit 1 Present The Present Perfect Continuous The verb ‘to be’ and contractions ‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’ The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple 'Ever' / 'Never' The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present Expressions with the Present Perfect ...Simple Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present The Preterit Continuous* (Past ...Continuous) ...Simple The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous The Present Continuous ‘Used To’ The Affirmative Imperative The Negative Imperative Unit 3 Future Verbs without a continuous form Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions The Near Future be + -ing* (Present ...Continuous for Future) ‘Always’ + Present Continuous The Future – ‘Will’ Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’ The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’ Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’ The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.

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Unit 4 Modals

‘Can’ – ability and likelihood ‘Can’ – perception and knowledge ‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’ ‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice ‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability ‘Must’ and ‘have to’ Using ‘must’ for obligation Strong probability using ‘must’ Absence of necessity ‘May’ and ‘Might’ ‘Shall’ ‘Would like’: expressing wishes Modal Auxiliaries Near certainty in the past: ...‘must have/ can’t have’

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Unit 5 Questions

Questions without interrogative words Interrogative Words ‘How long...’ Past Interrogatives Question Tags ‘Which’ / ‘What’ ‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when' Short Questions

Unit 6 Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles The Plural Names of Countries: Capitals Countable and Uncountable Nouns Exclamations with ‘what a’ Construction of Compound Nouns The use and omission of ‘the’ Definite articles with geographical names Nouns without singular forms Negation of the indefinite article

Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners

Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns ‘No’ / ’None’ The Possessive More uses of the Possessive The Indefinite Possessive Use of Pronoun ‘one’ Demonstrative Pronouns ‘Here’/ ‘There’ ‘Some’ and ‘Any’ ‘How much’ / ‘How many’ ‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’ ‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural? ‘Either……or’ ‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’ ‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’ ‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ ‘Each other’ / ‘One another’ Different meanings of ‘all’ ‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ Use of ‘both’

Unit 8 Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs ‘That’ and Dependent Clauses When ‘that’ may be left out ‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause

Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs

Possessive Adjectives ‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’ Placement of ‘Enough’ ‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’ Adverbs of Time / Frequency The Adverb ‘that’ ‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’ ‘Still’ / ‘Yet’ Compound Adjectives Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed Adjectives ending in –ing The Past Participle as an adjective Adverbs of Degree Adverbs and Adjectives Uses of ‘so’ The placement of ‘even’ ‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’ ‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’

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Unit 10 Comparatives and Superlatives

Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives

Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’ Regular and Irregular Comparatives Regular and Irregular Superlatives ‘The more . . . the more’ A use of the comparative

Unit 11 Prepositions

Prepositions of Time Prepositions of Place Final Prepositions Verbs + prepositions

Unit 12 Conjunctions

Gerunds and Infinitives Use of ‘be used to’ Use of ‘get used to’ Verbs: Reactions and Preferences Verb + Infinitive Clause Verbs expressing a wish to act Expressions followed by the gerund Verbs introducing a second action

Unit 14 Conditionals

Conjunctions Use of ‘so’ to express a goal ‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’ Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’

Present Conditional* and Sequence ...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second) The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional) The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’

Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive Wishes and Regrets

Unit 16 ive

The ive Voice The Impersonal Structure

Unit 17 Reported speech

The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported ...Speech) *This is the title of the grammar point in the online software. 6

Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs

The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal ...verbs) Phrasal Verbs

Unit 19 Expressions

‘To get’ + Adjective ‘To look forward to’ ‘Kind of’ followed by a noun ‘To be likely’ ‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’ ‘For the sake of’ Expressions with ‘to have’ Baseball Expressions ‘To be at stake’ Expressions of Increase

Unit 20 Other

‘There is/are’ Time ‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’ ‘To let’ ‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present ‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb ‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’ Expressions of Preference Words ending in ‘ever’ ‘Whether’ Emphatic 'do’ Verbs expressing impressions ...and feelings ‘I am told’

*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software. 7

1 GRAMMAR BOOK

Present

The verb ‘to be’ and contractions

The verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence. Conjugation of ‘to be’ Contraction of ‘to be’

Use + examples ( as a stative verb)

Negative ‘to be’

Question

I am I’m I am a student. You are You’re I’m a student. He /She /It is He’s / She’s / It’s We are We’re He is my brother. They are They’re He’s my brother.

I am not You are not He /She /It is not We are not

Negative contraction ‘to be’

I’m not You’re not or You aren’t He’s / She’s / It’s not or He / She / It isn’t We’re not or We aren’t

They are not They’re not or They aren’t

Am I?

Is he/ she/ it? Are we / you / they?

The verb ‘to have’

The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics. The verb ‘to have’

I You He /She / It We They

Negative ‘to have’

Question

I don’t have Do + I + have…? You don’t have you He/ She/ It doesn’t have we We don’t have they They don’t have Does + he + have? she it

Examples

Examples

Examples

I have 2 brothers. He has 2 brothers.

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I don’t have 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers.

Do you have 2 brothers? Does he have 2 brothers?

eClass English

Present Simple

We use the present simple for: ◌ things that are true in general ◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time ◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits

Present simple affirmative

Present simple negative

Present simple question

I work I don’t work Do + I + work…? You work You don’t work you He /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work we We work We don’t work they They work They don’t work Does + he + work? she it

Examples

I work everyday. He works everyday.

Examples

I don’t work everyday. He doesn’t work everyday.

Examples

Do you work everyday? Does he work everyday?

Third person (He / She / It)

You must always add an –s to the verb. Spelling

Verbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch : es add –es Verbs ending in : –y study : studies add –ies Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel.

Also

finish : finishes try : tries play : plays

do : does

go : goes

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Negative Form

The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non occurrence of an action. Structure The verb ‘to be’

Examples

Add : not or n’t to contractions

I You He /She /It We They



They are not my friends. He is not my brother.

Add : do not (I, you, we, they) or don’t does not (he, she, it) or doesn’t

I You He / She /It We They

Present Simple

am are is are are

not not not not not (aren’t) (isn’t)

don’t work. don’t work. doesn’t work. don’t work. don’t work.

I don’t play football on the weekends. He doesn’t go to university.

Tags – short answers

When we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which is a repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary. The verb ‘to be´

Am I a teacher? Are you a teacher? Is he a teacher? Is she a teacher? Are we teachers? Are they teachers?

Present Simple

Do I like football? Do you like football? Does he like football? Does she like football? Do we like football? Do they like football? 10

Yes, you are. Yes, I am. Yes, he is. Yes, she is. Yes, we are. Yes, they are.

No, you’re not. / you aren’t. No, I’m not. No, he’s not. / he isn’t. No, she’s not. / she isn’t. No, we’re not. / we aren’t. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.

Yes, you do. Yes, I do. Yes, he does. Yes, she does. Yes, we do. Yes, they do.

No, you don’t. No, I don’t. No, he doesn’t. No, she doesn’t. No, we don’t. No, they don’t.

eClass English

The Present Simple and Present Continuous

The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.

The Present Simple

Use

Examples

- Regular actions or events - When talking in general - Facts - Often used with adverbs of frequency – sometimes, often, always, never etc.

I always eat eggs for breakfast.

The Present Continuous

He often has English class. Banks lend money to make profits.

- The action is not happening . at the time of speaking.

Catherine wants to work in Italy, so she is learning Italian. (but perhaps she isn’t learning exactly at the time of speaking)



He is having English class at the moment.

- Now

- For temporary situations

Banks are lending more money (these days) to encourage businesses to expand.

I’m eating.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Present Continuous Present continuous:

something is happening now / at the moment / currently Past Now Future I’m working. He’s playing football. They’re watching television.

Structure + Examples

The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing

I am He/she/it is We/you/they are

Question:

(not) (not) (not)

verb-ing verb-ing verb-ing

I am working. Chris is writing a letter. We’re having dinner.

What are you doing now? What is he doing now?

We are running.

I’m eating.

It is raining.

Spelling

Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying

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eClass English

The Affirmative Imperative Sit down.

You can use the imperative form to give an order, a warning or advice.

Affirmative Imperative

Structure

you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + infinitive without ‘to’ Let + noun phrase + infinitive without ‘to’

Examples

Be Quiet! Walk down the street Let me check in the dictionary. Let Mark sit there. Let’s (us) go to the beach. Let them do what they want.

The Negative Imperative

The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT perform a specific action. Negative Imperative you (singular + plural) I, he, she, we, they

Structure

Do not (don’t) + Infinitive without ‘to’ Do not (don’t) let + object pronoun + infinitive without ‘to Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + infinitive without ‘to’

Examples

Don’t be quiet! Don’t walk down the street Don’t let me fall asleep. Don’t let the children fall asleep.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Verbs without a continuous form

Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms. Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions. Mental and emotional states

To believe

To doubt To feel (= have an opinion) To imagine To know To (dis)like To love To hate To prefer To recognize To To see (= understand) To suppose To think (= have an opinion) To understand To want To wish To realize

Use of the senses

To appear To hear To look (=seem) To see To seem To smell To sound To taste

Communicating and causing reactions

To agree To deny To impress To please To satisfy To mean To disagree

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eClass English

Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions

Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.

Verbs of perception

When they express ‘voluntary actions’

To see To hear To feel To smell To taste



I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow. I see what you mean.

Stative verbs

Expressing notions of belief, preference, feelings or an intellectual activity. .

NOT I’m seeing what you mean

To think (to reflect) What are you thinking about?

NOT to think ( have an opinion) What are you thinking of it? What do you think of it?

‘Always’ + Present Continuous

‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the present continuous in these situations: Use

Example

To express a repeated action which has an effect on the speaker.

You’re always running late!

To talk about unexpected or unplanned events.

Compare: When Alice comes to see me, I always meet her at the station. (a regular, planned arrangement) I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket. (accidental, unplanned meeting)

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Present Perfect and Past Simple

The Preterit (Past Simple) USE To talk about completed actions or finished events that happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.) I watched television yesterday.

Regular Verbs:

For regular verbs add –ed For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied I You He/she/it We They

watched watched watched watched watched

Examples

I watched television last night.

I You He/she/it We They

didn’t watch Did you watch? didn’t watch he/she/it didn’t watch didn’t watch we didn’t watch they

I didn’t watch television last night.

Did you watch television last night?

Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore you must memorize them. Here are some important irregular verbs:

begin break bring build buy catch come do drink eat 16

began broke brought built bought caught came did drank ate

fall find fly forget get give go have hear know

fell found flew forgot got gave went had heard knew

leave lose make meet pay put read ring say see

left lost made met paid put read(red) rang said saw

sell sit sleep speak stand take tell think win write

sold sat slept spoke stood took told thought won wrote

eClass English

Irregular Verbs

For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them. Here are some common irregular verbs:

Verb

be begin catch choose do drink eat fall fly give have

Past Tense was/were began caught chose did drank ate fell flew gave had

Past Participle been begun caught chosen done drunk eaten fallen flown given had

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time. Structure

I/you/we/they have He/she/it has Have Has

+ +

I/you/they/we + he/she/it +

Past Participles

past participle past participle

go have take eat drink sing

past participle….? past participle…?

gone had taken eaten drunk sung

Uses

Examples

Describes an action that started in the past and continues in the present. Shows that an action has recently happened. - (Just is used to show that something happened recently)

-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’ (She is at the mall now.) -I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded.

Shows there is a connection with now. An action in the past has a result now.

-‘Where is your key?’ (I can’t find it now.)

-I have always studied a lot in university. -Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger. -The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident. -I have (just) finished a great book!

They are at home. They are going out.

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‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’

They have gone out. (=They are not at home now)

eClass English

Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect Uses

Examples

Past Simple To indicate “old” information Present Perfect When giving recent news

Martin has crashed his car last year.

Past Simple When the time of the action is clear Present Perfect When the time of action is not specific

I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)

Past Simple ‘For’ ‘For’ is used in the past simple when we want to indicate the period of time that the action occurred but has already finished. Present Perfect ‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to indicate the period of time that the action has been occurring, though the action has not finished yet.

I lived in Victoria for five years.

Past Simple When the time period has finished Present Perfect When the time period has not finished

I saw three movies last week. (the action has finished in a specific time period in the past). I have seen three movies this week. (the week has not finished, so more actions in this time period may take place).

Martin crashed his car again.

I have already seen that movie. (no specific day or date of the action)

I have lived in Victoria for five years.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Present Perfect Continuous

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until this moment in the present.

rb –ing been + ve rb –ing y have been + ve e h /t e /w u o y I/ has –ing ….? b r e He/she/it v + n g …? e bee I/you/they/w been + verb –in Have he/she/it Has

Structure

Uses

Examples



We often use the present perfect continuous in this way, especially with How long, for… and since…The activity is still happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.

Describes an action that has recently stopped and has a connection with now. Describes an action that has been repeated over a certain amount of time.

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-Paul is very tired. He has been working hard. -Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing? -I have been learning English for three years. -She has been playing basketball since she was 6 years old. -They have been traveling to Europe every summer since 1995. It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago and it is still raining. How long has it been raining? It has been raining for two hours.

eClass English

‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’ For, since, ago = to say how long something has been happening.

Use

Examples



I have been studying English for 3 years.

‘Since’ = the start of a period

8 o’clock Monday 12 May April



I have been studying English since 2000.

‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago is usually used with the past tense

six weeks ago a long time ago two days ago



I studied English 5 years ago.

‘For’ = a period of time

two hours 20 minutes five days six months

a week 50 years a long time ages

1977 Christmas lunchtime they were at school

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Ever’ – ‘Never’

‘Ever’ = at some/any time up to now ‘Never’ = not ever

Structure

Examples

Question – ‘Ever’ Used in present simple and present perfect Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb Affirmative – ‘Ever’ Used with ‘if’ or superlative Negative – Negative ‘Never’ + verb in affirmative

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Do you ever play tennis? Have you ever been to Argentina? She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met. (superlative) Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to Paris. (if) I never drink and drive. I’ve never been to Argentina.

eClass English

Expressions with the Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.

Structure + Use

We can use these expressions with the present perfect: Today All day This week This year Already Just Yet Lately Recently In the last two months All my life So far Ever Never They refer to a period of time that is not yet over or is recent. We cannot use these expressions with the present perfect: Two months ago One year ago Last week Yesterday When I was a child They refer to a time in the past that is over.

Examples

He’s been in a bad mood all day. I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week. I’ve just started the class. I haven’t studied in the last two months. I haven’t heard about it so far.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous) Preterit Continuous = to say that someone was in the middle of doing something at a certain time.

Sarah 4 O´clock

Sarah 6 O´clock

It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television. At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.

Positive

Negative

Question

she/it was + verb –ing

I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing

Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?

We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing? It was raining.

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It wasn’t raining.

Was it raining?

eClass English

The Past Perfect

For actions that happened before related past events or times. Structure

I/we/they/you + had He/she/it + had

(=I’d etc.) (= he’d etc.)

Use

1. To express an action completed before a given time in the past. 2. A state or action beginning in the past continuing until some later time in the past.

10 9 8

11 12 1 7 6 5

Paul

2

3 4

Bye

+ past participle + past participle

(gone, seen, finished etc.)

Examples

I had never seen a movie before then. They had been friends for ten years when he left.

10 9 8

11 12 1 7 6 5

2

3 4

Half an hour later Hello

Sarah

Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11 o’clock. So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone home.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions that were unfinished when another action took place.

Structure

I/you/we/they He/she/it

had been had been

+ verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.) + verb –ing

I/you/we/they He/she/it Had I/you/they/we he/she/it

had not been had not been been + been +

+ verb-ing + verb-ing verb –ing ….? verb –ing …?

Uses

To show that something started in the past and continued up until the moment that something else happened. To show cause and effect.

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(sleeping, reading, eating, etc.) (helping, playing, talking, etc.)

Examples

Mary had been talking with John for 15 minutes until Lindsey arrived. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

eClass English

‘Used To’

Structure + Use

I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ + used to + verb + ing+ object. Is used for expressing habits or things which you are comfortable with or accustomed to. For expressing a point in the process of becoming accustomed to something. For expressing actions that were habitual in the past and implies that the action no longer takes place. In this sense it is used as a modal auxiliary.

Examples I am used to reading before going to sleep. I have gotten used to walking to work. I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Future

The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future

The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place at a specific time in the future. Structure

‘To be’ + verb-ing

Use

for the future (tomorrow / next week)

Examples

I am You are He/she/it is We are They are

for fixed future arrangements

I am staying at home.

(not) (not) (not) (not) (not)

eating eating eating eating eating

What are you doing tomorrow evening?

I’m playing tennis tomorrow

The Future – ‘Will’

We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)

Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive (without to)

I/we/you/they will (‘ll) He/she/it will not (won’t) Will I/we/you/they He/she/it

Examples:

I will be at home tomorrow. Will you be at home this evening?

We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking. ‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’ ‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’ 28

be eat etc. win be? win? etc. eat?

eClass English

The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’ Structure

Use

‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in the middle of doing something. It is used to talk about complete actions in the future.

Examples

The football games at 7:30 and ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will be watching the game. Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her to call me? A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her this evening, so I’ll tell her then.

The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’ Structure

‘Will’ + infinitive I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb (infinitive without to) I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) + verb (infinitive without to)

Use

Indefinite future predictions

Examples

Next year I think I will go to New York.

When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’. moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’

‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive ‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today. (infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, my intention is to do it) He is not going to finish the project on time.

We also use ‘to be going to’ when there is evidence in the present that something is going to happen in the future. It is clear now that it is sure to happen.

Example:

There is a black cloud in the sky. It’s going to rain.

It’s going to rain.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’ Structure

Use

‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur before another action in the future. I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will + past participle continue up until another action in the future.

Examples

You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the USA. By Monday, Susan will have had my book for a month.

The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive Structure

‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’ This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:

Use

A planned or agreed action Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ (This is a planned or agreed action that was not done.) An action which should be done An imposed action / a strict order Instructions and directions for use ‘To be’ + ive infinitive

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Examples

We’re to see them tomorrow. I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t) What’s to be done? You’re not to read that letter. The medicine is to be taken twice a day.

4

eClass English

Modals

‘Can’ – ability and likelihood

Structure Use

Use

Examples

‘Can’ ability - to be able to do something. Example: He can carry the bag. ‘Can’ likelihood / possibility Example: Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.) It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)

Structure

I / we / you / they he / she / it

Question

+ can + cannot (can’t)

Can + I / we / you / they he / she / it Example: Can you swim?

g. 30 K

verb

+ verb

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Can’ - perception and knowledge Use

‘Can’ ability / knowledge - to know how to do something Example: I can play the guitar. ‘Can’ perception - with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel. Example: I can see Sarah coming.

Structure

I / we / you / they + he / she / it

Question

Can +

can + verb cannot (can’t)

I / we / you / they he / she / it

+ verb

Example: Can you swim?

I can play the piano .

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eClass English

‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’

The modal ‘can’ has the following form

languages. 5 k a e p s n I ca g very well. in s ’t n a c e H e piano. s sick. Can th y la p ld u o hild I c use I wa Present Can’t en I was a c class yesterday beca h W ouldn’t go to c I ld u Co blem. She ro p r u o y t u ’t t o n b Pas Could Catherine a help you. k s A to ight be able m to le b a e b To ith you later. ecause w t e e m Infinitive to b I will be ablebe able to leave early . rk ’t to They won finish their homewo Will be able n’t) be able to they have to o (w t o n Future l il W

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice Use To give advice

Should / ought to =

You shouldn´t watch TV so much

It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do.

Should not / ought not to = It is not a good thing to do.

I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: It’s a good film. You should go and see it. Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late. I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to he, she, it Examples: Carol ought to buy some new clothes. You ought not to eat so much. ‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle = to express regret or reproach We should have gone to the mountains. They ought to have invited her.

‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability Structure

Use

‘Should’ subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable

‘Ought to’ subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption infinitive without ‘to’ 34

Example The train should arrive soon.

He is intelligent. He ought to the exam.

eClass English

‘Must’ and ‘Have to’ Must = a need or obligation to do something Structure

I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to He, she, it + must + infinitive without to

Example

You must wash your hands before eating.

Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it. Must not Structure

I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’

Example

You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.

NO

Have to = a need or obligation to do something. Structure

I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to

Don’t have to Doesn’t have to Structure

SM

OK

ING

Example

You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.

= NO obligation to do something. It is optional.

I, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive without ‘to’ He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive without ‘to

Example

You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t want to. ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Using ‘must’ for obligation Must = a need or obligation to do something. I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’

You must wash your hands before eating.

Mustn’t = an obligation NOT to do something.

I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’

You mustn’t walk on the grass.

Please keep off the grass

36

eClass English

Strong probability using ‘must’ Must = strong probability or near certainty.

Structure

Example

Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)

You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.

Negative: Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’) Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)

You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!

: The past form is ast participle must + have + p ainty in the past. rt e c r a e n s e s s It expre have gone out. t s u m e H : le p m Exa

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Absence of necessity

To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Structure

Examples

Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’ This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.

You don’t have to do your homework.

Subject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’ This expresses the opinion of the speaker.

38

You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far. You don’t need to bring your bike.

eClass English

‘May’ and ‘Might’

To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.

Use

Examples

May I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible.

I may go to the cinema later. He may call her.

Might I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something might not without to) is less than 50% possible.

He might have a meeting. He might know.

The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future. These other structures are also possible.

may/might + be + verb –ing

to talk about present or future

I may be working at that time. He might be having lunch. may/might + have + past participle

to talk about uncertain events in the past

She may have been asleep. She might have left it in the shop.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Shall’

In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it is not often used. Use ‘shall’ with I/ we I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late) Shall we go to the museum later?

Do NOT use ‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)

‘Shall’ can express obligation.

This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’). It is used in legal texts and official rules.

Examples: 1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount within three years. 2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.

‘Would like’: expressing wishes ‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire. ‘Would like’ + infinitive Example: I would like to go to the movies. ‘Would like’ + noun or noun phrase Example: I would like a drink. Interrogative ‘would like’ Example: Would you like a coffee?

40

more polite form of (do) want

eClass English

Modal Auxiliaries

A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form. Modal

Use

Can Ability Negative: cannot / can’t Past: could Future: will be able to Permission Could Possible actions now or in the future. (to make suggestions) Permission May To say that something is about 50% possible. Permission Might To say that something is less than 50% possible. Must Obligation Negative: mustn’t Deduction Negative: can’t

Could + have + past participle May + have + past participle Might + have + past participle

Possibility in the past. Something you could have done but did not do / did not attempt to do. To say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past. To say that it is possible that something happened or was true in the past. BUT did not happen.

Example

He can play the piano.

Can I leave the room? When you go to New York you could stay with Jane. Could I open the window? I may go to the cinema later. May I open the window? He might have a meeting. You must go to the bank You mustn’t go to the bank. You’ve been travelling all day, you must be tired. You’ve been sleeping all day, you can’t be tired.

I could have studied Architecture in university. Polly’s very late. She may have missed her train. You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’

When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure

Use

Structure

Use

subject + must have + past participle Deduction Near certainty in the past Example: John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick. subject + can’t have + past participle A deduction about something that didn’t happen in the past. Example: I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.

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5

eClass English

Questions

Questions without interrogative words



Examples

‘To be’ + subject Am I? Are you? Is he / she / it? Are we? Are they?

Are you married? Is John a policeman?

The Verb ‘to be’

Present Simple Do + subject + verb Does

Does he study English? Do they have television?

Do you / we / they? Does he / she / it?

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Interrogative Words

Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place, reason, etc. that an action occurs.

Interrogative word

Use

refers to people Who refers to people or things Which when there is a choice refers to things What refers to manner or means How asks about reason Why refers to location Where refers to time or date When refers to possession Whose

44

Example

Who is he? Who do you know? e?

Which do you prefer tea or coffe What sport do you play?

anner) How do you spell your name? (m) How do you go to work? (means Why don’t you like her? Where is the museum? When does the store open? When do you leave? Whose pen is this?

eClass English

‘How long’

‘How long’

is used to ask questions about duration.

Structure

Example

‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun

How long is your vacation? How long are the books?

‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + subject + verb

How long do you take to eat breakfast? How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the two structures above. Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.



‘How long’ + preterit (past simple)

Structure

Example

‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?

‘How long’ + present perfect

‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + subject + past participle

How long have you had that car?

‘How long’ + present perfect continuous

How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English? ‘

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Past Interrogatives

The verb ‘to be’

‘Was’ / ‘were’ + subject was were

I? he? she? it? we? you? they?

Where was Ann yesterday? Was the weather good? Were they expensive?

The Preterit (Past Simple) ‘Did’ + subject + verb Did

46

I What did you do yesterday? you Where did he go on holiday? he Did it rain on Saturday? she watch? it we they

eClass English

Questions – Tags

Question tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence. A positive sentence A negative sentence

A negative question tag A positive question tag

Examples The verb ‘to be’ You’re a doctor, aren’t you? He is not here today, is he?

Present Continuous He is studying English, isn’t he? You’re not meeting Jim, are you?

Present Simple They work together, don’t they? She doesn’t eat meat, does she?

Preterit/ Past Simple He went on vacation, didn’t he? They didn’t work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give you examples for the tenses you have learned so far. The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it. If your voice You aren’t really asking a question; you are only inviting the listener to agree with you. Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it? Yes, lovely.

Goes down It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it? Yes, lovely.

Goes up

You are asking a real question. Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you? No, I’m afraid not.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Which’ / ‘What’

Which, What = both are used for choices. They are often used interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. (usually objects)

What books do you prefer? What kind of services do you want?

Which – a choice between or among a limited number of things/possibilities (usually objects and people)

Which do you prefer: romance novels or science fiction? Which of these shirts is yours?

‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’ Structure

‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject + ‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’?

Examples

Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’ A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.

We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time. (two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.) ‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject + ‘been’+ verb –ing We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time. (8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)

48

Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’ A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.

eClass English

Short Questions

In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.

These are questions formed with incomplete sentences.

You can only use them when the context has been clearly established.

They ask for , check understanding, ask for clarification, ask for advice / suggestions, make requests and agreement.

Here are some examples: Short Questions

Possible complete form

Any thoughts? Suggestions? Ideas? Any problems? Objections? Anything serious? Louder, please? Sorry?

Do you have any thoughts on what I just said? Do you have any suggestions? Can you give me some ideas? Have you been having any problems? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal? Are the problems serious? Could you speak a bit louder, please? Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles

An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not yet a particular one. Language

The indefinite article A

Use

- one thing or person. - a noun in a general context.

Example

The definite article The

- a noun in a specific context.

He is the teacher.

Language

Use

Example

He is a teacher.

The indefinite article A

is used before words that begin I am a man. with consonants.

The indefinite article An

is used before words that begin This is an orange. with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) or vowels sounds It’s an honor.

Exceptions:

50

an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our) a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

eClass English

The Plural

Plural rules Examples

To make a noun plural add – s

a flower a book

For nouns ending in: –s / –sh / –ch / –x – es

bus : buses dish : dishes box : boxes church : churches



Also: potato : potatoes tomato: tomatoes

two flowers two books

For nouns ending in: –y

– ies

baby : babies party : parties

but –ay / –ey / –oy

– ys

day : days

– ves

shelf : shelves wife: wives

monkey: monkeys

For nouns ending in: –f / –fe

Some nouns have irregular endings

man woman foot child person

men women feet children people

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Names of Countries: Capitals

a university (pronounced yuniversity) a European country (pronounced yeuropean)



Names of countries have capital letters.

He’s a friend from .

They live in Spain.

I am from the United States!

52

eClass English

Countable and Uncountable Nouns a university (pronounced yuniversity)

A noun can be

countable

or

uncountable

Countable nouns

You can use one/two/three etc. + countable nouns. (you can count them) Countable nouns can be singular or plural.

(a) car (a) man (a) house (an) idea

Examples

I have a car. I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns

You cannot say one/two/three etc. Uncountable nouns only have one form. You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns. Uncountable nouns are always singular. Examples

water rice money salt music I have money. I have some money.

Exclamations with ‘what a’ ‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun

What a rude man! What a nice dress!

‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun

What beautiful weather! What lovely flowers!

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Construction of Compound Nouns A compound noun = two nouns ed together.

One noun modifies the other. Example: tooth, paste: toothpaste

Compound nouns can be written in these ways:

There are not many rules for ing compound nouns. You must check a dictionary for the correct form. 1. The two words are ed together. Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom 2. They are ed using a hyphen. Example: check-in 3. They appear as two separate words. Example: full moon Other Examples: ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather

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eClass English

The use and omission of ‘the’



Use

The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or uncountable nouns when we are thinking of one particular thing.

Examples

Tom sat down on a chair. (perhaps one of many chairs) Tom sat on the chair nearest the door. (a particular chair)

No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or people in general, we do not use ‘the’.

I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs) Children learn a lot from playing. (children in general)

No ‘the’

We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, countries, continents, states, regions, islands, cities, mountains.

I visited Europe last year. (not the Europe)

The

But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, seas, rivers and canals.

I live in the USA. She is from the Republic of Ireland. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Definite articles with geographical names

No ‘the’

Use

Singular name of a country, continent or region. Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.

Examples

, Great Britain, Spain

The Plural name of a country.

The British Isles, the West Indies, the Philippines

The

But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’.

The United States, The Republic of Ireland, The United Kingdom

The

Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions.

The UK, the USA, the EU

No ‘the’

The names of streets, squares, monuments and parks. ( generally)

Carnaby Street, Hyde Park, Wesminister Abbey

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eClass English

Nouns without singular forms

Some plural nouns have no singular forms. Nouns referring to objects composed of 2 symmetrical parts

Scissors, glasses, tros, jeans, shorts, tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, use ‘pair of’ Some collective nouns

Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite article

The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this: Structure

Examples

With plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns ‘Not………………any’

There aren’t any buses here. It doesn’t require any equipment.

With a singular countable noun: ‘Not………..a’

I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Pronouns and Determiners

Subject Pronouns s

Subject Pronoun I You (singular) He She It We You (plural) They

Object Pronouns Object Pronouns (subject pronoun) I You He She It We They

(object pronoun) me you him her it us them

Examples Ann knows me. Ann knows you. Ann knows him. Ann knows her. Ann knows it. Ann knows us. Ann knows them.

It’s nice. I Iike it.

58

Use We use:

a verb + object pronoun

They’re nice. I like them.

eClass English

Possessive Pronouns Mine

Ours

I my you your he his she her we our they their

Yours

(possessive pronoun) mine yours his hers ours theirs

His

Hers

Theirs

We use my/your etc. + a noun My hands are cold. We use mine/yours etc. without a noun Is this book mine or yours? Possessive pronouns show possession and answer the question ‘whose’.

Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns

I You He She It We You They

Use

myself yourself himself We use reflexive pronouns herself when the subject and object of a itself sentence are the same person ourselves or non-person. yourselves themselves

Examples I talk to myself when I am nervous. We blame ourselves for the results of the test. It saw itself in the mirror.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘No’ / ‘None’ No

‘No’ + noun

None

Use

Examples

When we want to exclude all possibilities.

- We have no bread. - There were no problems.

Use

Examples

‘None’

When no part of something is left.

- Do you have any more pie? No, sorry, I have none.



When none exists, not even a group of people or a small amount of something.

- When she returned to the office, none of us recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s Examples: It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John) It’s my mother’s umbrella. Chile’s economy is doing well.

friend’s and friends’ My house

Our house

My friend’s house = one friend (=his house or her house) (singular)

60

My friends’ house = 2 or more friends (= their house) (plural)

eClass English

More uses of the Possessive n also a c ’s – e iv s s e The poss h dates, durations be used wdit distances. an ular noun g in s a to ’s We add postrophe (’) to a and an a n, for example: plural nou

Dates

Sunday’s weather Tomorrow’s flight Next year’s budget

Durations

Three weeks’ vacation

Distances

A hundred miles’ drive

The Indefinite Possessive Use

Structure

We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of before another determiner and a noun. + possessive We can say ‘my friend’ but not (’s) ‘a my friend’. So we use these structures. determiner + noun + of + possessive (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

Examples

I met a friend of Lucy’s. Have you heard this new idea of your boss’s? ( a, this = determiners) How’s that brother of yours? Peter is a cousin of mine. ( a, that = determiners)

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Use of the pronoun ‘one’ The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace: •a countable noun already expressed •a noun that hasn’t been expressed

These chocolates are nice Would you like one?

Would you like one? = Would you like a chocolate? One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)

Which one do you want?

This one

One (singular) Which one? = which hat? Which one do you want?

Ones (plural) Which ones? = which flowers?

62

The white ones

eClass English

Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’ The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation to the speaker.

this

that

these

This (singular)

Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural)

Examples:



Is this John’s house? This is a nice surprise!

That (singular)

Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural)

Examples:



Who owns that house? That’s nothing to do with me.

those

Position

Examples:

a) Before a noun.

This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one.

This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun.

Do you that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood.

I’ll never forget this.

‘Here’ / ‘There’ ‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us.

Here is the money (in my hand).

‘There’ is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away. 63

GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Some’ / ‘Any’ Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity. Use with both countable and uncountable nouns. I have got some money. Would you like some water? (offer) Can I have some bread? (request) $

‘Some’: in positive sentences, offers and requests.

‘Any’: in negative sentences and questions

I have some money.

I haven’t got any money. Do you have any information? I don’t have any money.

‘Any’: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time. permission, possibility, or restriction. Any of these designs are fine. ‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.

64

eClass English

‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’

Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions.

Ann has a lot of meetings.

Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative sentences and in questions.

Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.

Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative sentences, positive sentences and in questions.

I don’t have many classes today.

I have a lot of work to do.

How much coffee did you drink?

Did many people come to the party?

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘How much’ / ‘How many’ ‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity ‘How much’ + uncountable nouns

How much money do you want? How much time do you have?

‘How many’ + plural countable nouns

How many friends do you have? How many books are there?

‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’ To compare two things that are the same. ‘as much as’ Use with:

Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns

You have as much money as I do. (= the same amount)

‘not as much as’

You don’t have as much money as I do.

‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns ‘not as many as’

There are as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires. There aren’t as many parks in Santiago as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also. Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun. It’s twice as much as the rent. (=It’s twice as much money as the rent)

66

eClass English

‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural? ‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’

Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, the verb is singular.

Some of the meal was really good. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the verb is plural.

Some of the books are quite funny. None of the stories are interesting.

‘Either…or’ A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb. ‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’ I’m not happy. I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’)

I can’t cook. I can’t cook either.

I’m not happy.

I’m not happy either.

(not ‘I can’t …too’)

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’

Use

Example

‘Either…….or’

A choice between 2 things

I want either fruit juice or coffee.

? ?

or Either

Either you come to class or you do the work at home.

‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things neither (not + either)

I can neither read nor write French. She’s neither nice nor helpful.

‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’

‘Everybody’ (everyone) (all the people)

‘Nobody’ (no one) (no people)

68

singular

singular

Everybody needs friends. All the people need friends.

Nobody is here. No people are here.

eClass English

‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags

r verbs. la u g in s y b d e w o e plural. re foll a th y in d o is b o g n ta , y e d th o , b g Everybody, soemyeare followed by a question ta However, if th body needs ry e v E n’t they? singular o d , s d n ie ) fr e n o ry Everybody (eve (all the people) body has to goy? e m o S singular don’t the , g in p p o h ) s e n o e Somebody (som know who) ’t n o d e w t u b n o ( a pers o y really knows, d d o b o N singular they? ) e n o o (n Nobody es Mike. (no people) k li y d o b o N : le p e form. Exam iv it s o p e th in rb Nobody + ve

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Each other’ / ‘One another’ ‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably. They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.

John and Paul looked at each other. (= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive. They took each other’s hands. We often meet at one another’s places. Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship between two subjects whereas one another was used for a relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however, most do not observe this distinction. Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects) The children are sitting opposite one another. (More than two subjects)

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eClass English

Different meanings of ‘all

‘All’ = all of something limited. It is used with uncountable or plural countable nouns.

‘All’ + noun ‘All (of)’ +

All cities have the same problem. the this/that/these/those (demonstrative) my/your etc. (possessive adjective)

All the children at this school are tall. All these books are mine. I have spent all my money.

Personal Pronouns personal pronoun + ‘all’ ‘all of’ + personal pronoun

Have you read these books? I’ve read them all. I’ve read all of them.

with Subject Pronouns Subject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’

The girls all left. We will all have some juice. They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = ‘every’ Every student in the class ed the exam. Every country has a national flag.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘A little’ / ‘A bit’

‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity

Structure

Use

Examples

‘A little’

Use with uncountable nouns. It can also replace the noun to avoid repetition.

We want a little fresh air. ‘Do you want some coffee?’ ‘A little, please.’

‘A bit of’

Use with uncountable nouns.

We want a bit of fresh air.

‘A little’

Adverb of degree.

We’re a little busy today.

‘A little’ + adjective

This tooth aches a little.

Verb + ‘a little’ Little (negative connotation)

Use with countable nouns.

I have little time to finish the report.

‘A bit’

Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb.

Can you drive a bit slower?

‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you. It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels repetition. do you have?’ ‘Few’ ‘A few.’ (negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.

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eClass English

Use of ‘both’

‘Both’ = two elements With nouns

I want both books. Both shirts are good.

With determiners Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both of’ are possible.

I want both (of) those books. Both (of) the books.

With object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun. ‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns.

Both of them are my sisters. She has invited both of us. She has invited us both.

With verbs Both goes after auxiliaries and before other verbs.

We have both gone to the beach. We both want to go.

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Relative Clauses and Dependent Clauses

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Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Relative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A ‘clause’ is part of a sentence. A ‘relative clause’ tells us which person or thing the speaker means. The woman who lives next door is a doctor. relative clause A relative clause s two sentences: I met a woman. She speaks two languages. she who I met a woman who speaks two languages. WHO people I know a lot of people who live in London. THAT things or people The man that lives next door is very friendly. Barbara works for a company that makes computers. WHICH things Emma lives in a house which is 500 years old. WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.) A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. WHERE a place That is the hotel where Tom got married. WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb in the relative clause) The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday. ( I wanted to see her)

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eClass English

There are two types of relative clauses. Defining Relative Clauses

Non- defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause does not tell you which person the speaker means. or thing the speaker means. (We already know which thing or person is meant.) This is extra information about the person or thing. We do NOT use commas.

We use commas.

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‘That’ and Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an independent clause. When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent clause is in the present also. Reported Speech

When ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see reported speech)

Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)

‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.

*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun? Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb. the apple that is laying on the table Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun. the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted. We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended. ‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause. This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages. ‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause. Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines. ‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.

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eClass English

When ‘that’ may be left out

‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.

Reported speech

After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be left out. Examples: said, thought, suggested

James said (that) he was feeling better.



However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after certain verbs Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

James replied that he was feeling better.

After adjectives

In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, ‘that’ can be left out.

I’m glad (that) you’re all right.

Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style in some common two-word conjunctions such as: ‘so that’ ‘such…that’ ‘now that’ ‘providing that’ ‘provided that’ ‘supposing that’ ‘considering that’ ‘assuming that’

Come in quietly so (that) she doesn’t hear you.

Relative structures

Look! There are the people (that) we met in Brighton

Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ when it is the object in a relative clause. *See ‘that + dependent clauses’

I was having such a nice time (that) I didn’t want to leave.

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‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause

Structuree ‘To hope’ + future mple ‘To hope’ + present si (refers to the future)

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Examples She hopes he’ll come. any problems getting home. I hope you won’t have all right. He hopes the traffic is too cold. I hope the water is not

9

eClass English

Adjectives and Adverbs Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close relationship. Possessive adjectives (subject pronoun) I my You your He his She her It its We our They their

my hat

her hat

Examples

We use: I like my job. You like your job. He likes his job She likes her job. It likes its food. (The dog) We like our jobs. They like their jobs.

Use possessive adjective + a noun to show possession

our hats

your hat

their hats

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GRAMMAR BOOK

‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’ ‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’ = More than you want, more than is good. This is a negative concept.

Structure

Examples

‘Too’ + adjective/adverb

The music is too loud.

‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns

There is too much sugar in my tea.

‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns

She has too many books.

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eClass English

Placement of Enough ‘Enough’ = sufficient, adequate He can’t reach the shelf. He’s not tall enough. Structure

Examples

After adjectives and adverbs

I’m not tall enough. You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases

There isn’t enough time.

After verbs (including past participles)

He doesn’t work enough. I’ve eaten enough.

‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’ Also

As well

Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. She also studies English. She studies English as well. She is also tall.

She is tall as well.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well.

Too

At the end of a clause or for emphasis (with commas) I have a dog too. I, too, have a dog. She studies English too. She, too, studies English. She is tall too. She, too, is tall. We are Chinese too. We, too, are Chinese.

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Adverbs

An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place. To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly Examples: Accidently Quickly Angrily Safely Badly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs: These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early Good (adjective) well (adverb) Your English is very good. You speak English very well. Spelling Rules

-If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily



-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/ Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely



-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/ Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

Adverbs of Time / Frequency

Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something. How often do you go to the mall? I sometimes go to the mall. never seldom/rarely sometimes* often usually aways 0%

20%

60%

Adverb placement

Examples

After verb ‘to be’

I am always tired. She is usually late for English class.

Before a verb

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40%

80%

100%

I never go to the mall. I always play basketball on the weekends. She often practices English.

*Sometimes can also go before the subject.

eClass English

The Adverb ‘that’ ‘that’ as an adverb

Structure

‘That’ + adjective/ adverb

Use

To intensify the meaning of the adjective/ adverb

Example

Are you that afraid? I had no idea I was that far from home.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something. They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object. Examples: The train stopped suddenly. I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective

Adverb

-Sue is very quiet.

-Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)

-It was a bad game. (Describes the game which is a noun)

-Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)

-I am nervous.

-I waited nervously.

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‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’

‘Yet’ = until now

Bill will be here soon.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.

Where’s Bill? He’s very late.

They are still waiting for Bill. Bill hasn’t come yet.

Use Yet Use in negative sentences and questions

Examples Where is Diane? She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.

Are you ready to go yet? No, not yet..

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eClass English

‘Still’ / ‘Yet’

Still = something is the same as before

THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED

An hour ago it was raining. It is still raining now. Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)

Yet = until now Where’s Bill. He’s very late.

Bill will be here soon.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.

They are still waiting for Bill. Bill hasn’t come yet.

Use Yet Use in negative sentences and questions

Examples Where is Diane? She isn’t here yet.

‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.

Are you ready to go yet? Not yet. 85

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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives work together to modify the same noun. The second part of the compound adjective may be: An adjective

ice-cold

A present participle

heartbreaking

A past participle

well-deserved

A noun + ed

old-fashioned

Irregular (Do not follow the structures above)

second-hand

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HEART BREAKING

eClass English

Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed Ending in –ing

Use

When the adjective ends in –ing, it means that the particular person or thing causes a particular effect.

I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.

Ending in –ed

Use

Examples

Subject + verb ‘to be’ + adjective + –ing Subject + verb ‘to be’ + adjective + –ed

Examples

When the adjective ends in –ed, it means that the particular person or thing experiences a particular effect.

Snakes terrify me. I am always terrified when I see one.

Adjectives ending in –ing

Some adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb. Examples: Disgust Bore Interest Depress Surprise

disgusting boring interesting depressing surprising

Adjectives ending in –ing

Adjectives ending in –ed

Tells you about the situation

Tells you how somebody feels.

Examples: My job is boring. The news was shocking. It was surprising that he ed the exam.

Examples: I’m bored with my job. We were shocked when we heard the news. Everyone was surprised that he ed the exam.

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The past participle as an adjective

Some past participles can be used as adjectives. Regular Verbs add –ed or –d Examples: worked, finished, boiled Irregular Verbs

No general rules

Some common irregular past participles

break write fall give take fly swim

broken written fallen given taken flown swum

drive eat forget see know drink throw

Examples: That is a broken cup. We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.

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driven eaten forgotten seen known drunk thrown

eClass English

Adverbs of Degree

Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens. Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them. They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’ Highest Intensity totally completely entirely thoroughly absolutely definitely positively

++ somewhat somehow fairly rather kind of

+++ almost very extremely really quite practically

+ slightly a bit a little

Lowest Intensity hardly scarcely barely

Use / Structure

Example

Place the adverb before the main verb

She has almost finished.

Place the adverb before the adjective or adverb they are modifying

The water was extremely cold.

Examples: I’m really enjoying working on this project. The exam was fairly easy. He has barely worked this year.

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Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:

Adverb

good difficult public deep direct hard high late most near pretty short

Adjective

well with difficulty publicly deep (place) direct hard high (place) late most near pretty (=rather) short

Other uses ) deeply (feelingn) directly (=soo m) hardly (=seldove) highly (figuratitly) lately (=recen lly) mostly (=usuast) nearly (=almo prettily ) shortly (=soon

, little, y rl u o h t, s fa r, arly, fa aily, enougho,nethly, much, straight, d low, m ves are , ti g c n je lo d a g in w o The foll as adverbs yearly, … , ly k e e w also used dification) formation in (without mo a tr x e e iv g o used to adverbs are tiavlses (or other adverbs). about adjec

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eClass English

Uses of ‘so’

Structure + Examples ‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation You’re so kind! Don’t be so sensitive! ‘that’ clauses so…………that It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing) He was driving so fast that he went through a red light. Substitute word ‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb. The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend. We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.

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The placement of ‘even’

Use

We use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.

Example Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.

Use

We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive) Example I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.

Position of even ‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb Even my sister will be there. Even you can come. Auxiliary + ‘even’ + verb I don’t even know you. I have even invited John. *A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way characterize that noun.

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eClass English

‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’

‘Even if’ and ‘even though’ mean basically the same thing: ‘although’. They have the following distinct meanings: Structure

Use

Examples

‘Even though’ Concession. Describes a reality that seems to contradict main clause.

Even though you’re my friend, I can’t trust you.

‘Even if’ Something hypothetical or theoretical. A contradiction of some hypotheses. All conditional forms can be used.

Even if you were my friend, I wouldn’t trust you.

Even though she tried her best, she fell twice.

He won’t transfer to Africa, even if they double his salary.

‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’ Use

Examples

‘Quite’ = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’

It’s quite cold. You’d better put a coat on.

‘Quite’ goes before a/an

Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)

‘Quite a few’ = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities. Example: I have quite a few letters for you. Quite also means ‘completely’. Example: ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure) With theses adjectives, ‘quite’ means ‘completely’: sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious unnecessary extraordinary impossible

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Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparing equals using ‘as…as’ Structure

‘as’ + adjective / adverb + ‘as’

Use

To compare two people or things according to a common trait. Examples My brother is as tall as my dad. I’m as old as you are.

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eClass English

Regular and Irregular Comparatives S I’m 93.

I’m 92.

40

50

KG

old

KG

heavy

older

heavier

Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’. 1 syllable adjectives old

add -er older

My brother is older than my sister.

2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier easy easier

English is easier than Russian.

2 or more syllables beautiful

Helen is more beautiful than Jane.

add more (before the adjective) more beautiful

Spelling Rules

Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.) Example:

hot

hotter

big

bigger

fat

fatter

Irregular Comparatives

good better bad worse far farther/further much/many more little less

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Regular and Irregular Superlatives



Box A is bigger than Box B. Box A is bigger than all the other boxes. Box A is the biggest box.

Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use ‘the’, because there is only one superlative. 1 syllable adjectives

add the -est

old

the oldest

2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’

add the -iest

easy

the easiest

2 or more syllables beautiful

add the most (before the adjective) the most beautiful

Spelling Rules

My brother is the oldest of my siblings.

English is the easiest language to learn.

Helen is the most beautiful in her family.

Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant. Example: hot – hottest

big – biggest

Irregular Superlatives good bad far much/many little 96

the best the worst the farthest/ the furthest the most the least

fat – fattest

eClass English

‘The more . . . the more’ Structure

‘the’ + comparative..............., ‘the’ + comparative Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together. Examples The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language. The more I learn, the more I know. The older I get, the happier I am.

A use of the comparative Structure

‘the’ + comparative

Use

Sometimes a comparative may express an opposition between 2 elements without actually stating both elements (the second element is implied)

Examples

The younger generation (as opposed to ‘the older generation’) This class is for the more intelligent students (as opposed to ‘the slower students’)

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Prepositions

Prepositions of Time

A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the moment/day/time/date of the action. Preposition

Use

Example

At

Time

I start work at 9 o’clock. I go to bed at midnight. The shops close at 5.30.

On

Days of the week Specific dates New Year’s Day etc.

I have class on Tuesdays. My birthday is on May 25th. I go home on Christmas Day.

In

Months Seasons Years

My birthday is in June. I take vacation in the summer. I was born in 1980.

To show ending date or period.

I need to finish the report by Friday. It will be ready by the summer.

MT W TFSS 1 8 15 22 29

2 3 9 10 16 17 May 23 24 30 31

4 11 18 25

5 12 19 26

6 13 20 27

7 14 21 28

By

Fixed expressions:

in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening But on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc. At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American) At night At the moment

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eClass English

Prepositions of Place

A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object. In •Inside of a place •Country, city, district something is located in

At •General location •Precise point in larger space at the corner at the bus stop at the door at the front desk

in the garden in London in in a car

On •Surface

on the wall on the ceiling on the door on a page

Here are some prepositions of place.

on

above

over

in front of

beside

behind

under

below

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Final Preposition A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence. Verb + preposition

Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action. Examples: Listen to Look at Look for (search for, try to find) Look after (take care of) Talk about Talk to Worry about Pay for Depend on Complain about Go to Go for Go on Go in

In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence: Interrogative questions (when the question word is the object of the preposition)

What are you looking at? What kind of music do you like to listen to?

Relative clauses (when the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition)

This is the house that I am talking about. That’s what I’m worried about.

Infinitive clauses

I’ve got lots of music to listen to. She has nothing to complain about.

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eClass English

Conjunctions

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that “s” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence. Frequently Used Conjunctions:

Examples:

- To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another.

Karen sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response.

-To suggest that one idea is the result of another.

Kevin heard the weather report and packed his camping gear.

- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another.

Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a pleasant personality.

-To suggest an element of surprise.

Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers from severe pollution.

-To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally.

Use your credit cards frequently, and you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.

-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the first clause.

My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test and that didn’t surprise anyone.

‘And’

‘Yet’

-To suggest addition, more of something.

She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.

-Despite, even though

The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.

-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur.

They may yet win the game.

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‘Nor’

-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences.

He is neither young nor ambitious.

-Used with other negative expressions.

That is not what I meant, nor should you misinterpret my statement.

‘But’

- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based on the first clause.

Joey lost his job last year, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably.

- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way.

The students never studied for the test, but used their notes to work on the assignment in class.

- To use with the meaning of ‘with the exception of’.

Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.

‘Or’

- To suggest that only one possibility can be achieved, excluding one or the other.

You can study hard for this exam or you can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)

- To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives.

We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can eat hamburgers.

- To suggest a refinement of the first clause.

Smart English is the best language center in the country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.

- To suggest a restatement or ‘correction’ of the first part of the sentence.

There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us.

- To suggest a negative condition.

Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for class participation.

- To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative.

They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep asking her to design the uniforms each year.

‘For’

Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’ as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for the preceding clause.

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John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company’s board of trustees.

eClass English

‘So’ - To connect two independent clauses together with a comma.

Steve has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds when he is at the beach.

- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’.

John is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his uncle, sister, and his aunt Sally.

- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents. does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

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Use of ‘so’ to express a goal Examples: I’m saving money so I can travel in the summer. She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.

‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’

Objectives are expressed using ‘so that’ followed by: Structure

Example

Present simple

He’ll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.

‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’

He stayed after school so that he could help me with my homework.

‘Will’ / ‘would’

I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldn’t forget.

In an informal style, ‘that’ is often dropped. Example: I’ve come early so I can talk to you.

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eClass English

Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’ Use

We can use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to say that things are similar.

Structure

Example

‘Like’ - is similar to a preposition •Like + noun / pronoun

You look like your sister. He ran like the wind.

•We can use ‘like’ to give examples

She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.

‘As’ - is a conjunction •‘As’ + clause (subject + verb)

They did as they promised.

•‘As’ comes before nouns designating tittles and functions

He worked as a taxi driver.

s but ‘Like’ and ‘as’ can both be used as preposition ‘Like’ = ‘similar to’ ‘As’ = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’

have different meanings.

ny Compare: pany. As the manager, she has to make ma ‘As’ – Brenda Casey is the manager of a com important decisions. nager) (‘As the manager’ = in her position as the ma (Brenda Casey), she also has to er nag ma the Like er. nag ma nt ista ass the ‘Like’ – Mary Stone is make important decisions. (‘Like the manager’ = similar to the manager)

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Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and Infinitives

The infinitive (‘to’ + verb) is used: • To say why you do something I go to the gym to get some exercise. • To say why something exists Here’s an example to help you. • After ‘too’ and ‘enough’ It’s too cold to go swimming. The gerund (verb ending in –ing) is used: • After prepositions (see below) He’s made a lot of friends by ing the tennis club. • As non-count nouns Climbing is safer than it looks

PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on

despite without since

If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form. Verbs Followed by an Infinitive She agreed to speak before the game. agree consent hope aim continue hurry appear dare intend arrange decide leap ask deserve leave attempt expect long be able fail mean beg forget neglect begin get offer bother happen ought care have plan choose hesitate prefer

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prepare proceed promise propose refuse say shoot stop strive swear threaten

try use wait want wish

eClass English

Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive Everyone expected her to win. advise choose have order send allow command hire pay teach ask dare instruct permit tell beg direct invite persuade urge bring encourage lead prepare want build expect leave promise warn buy forbid let remind challenge force motivate require Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object. Verbs Followed by a Gerund They enjoyed working on the boat. it delay advise deny appreciate enjoy avoid escape can’t help excuse complete finish consider forbid

get through have imagine mind miss permit postpone

practice quit recall report resent resist resume

risk spend (time) suggest tolerate waste (time)

Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund We concentrated on doing well. it to depend on approve of disapprove of argue about discourage from believe in dream about care about feel like complain about forget about concentrate on insist on confess to plan on

prevent (someone) from refrain from succeed in talk about think about worry about

Expressions followed by the gerund It’s no good It’s not worth It’s a waste of time Can’t stand Can’t help

It’s no use Can’t bear

Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund begin love continue like

dislike hate

prefer start

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‘Get used to’

We use ‘get used to’ to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms. Structure: ‘get used to’ + noun or gerund It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving to the new office. on the left side of the road yet?

She is getting used to waking up early for her new job.

‘Be used to’

We use the expression ‘be used to’ to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form. Structure: subject + be + used to + object. Mary is used to horses. Kurt is not used to horses.

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Are you used to horses?

We are used to taking the bus.

eClass English

Verbs: Reactions and Preferences

Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund (verb ending in –ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (‘to’ + verb) or a gerund. Followed by the gerund

To enjoy To mind To resent To object to To miss Cannot stand



They enjoy dancing very much. I miss going to my English class.

Followed by gerund or infinitive

To like To love To dislike To hate To loathe To prefer Cannot bear



I love eating. I love to eat.

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Verb + Infinitive Clause

Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure. Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want verb + object + infinitive Examples: He wants John to rent a car. They don’t allow people to smoke.

Many of these verbs can also be used in the ive structure.

Subject + ive verb + infinitive Examples: We were advised to come early. We were instructed to put down our pens.

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eClass English

Verbs expressing a wish to act

Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (‘to’ + verb) or gerunds (verbs ending in –ing).

To intend Infinitive or gerund* *A gerund with this verb

He intends to go to New York. He intends going to new York.*

To propose Infinitive or gerund

What did he propose doing? What did he propose to do?

To try (attempt to do, make an effort to )

I am trying to do this exercise.

is only used in British English.

Infinitive

To try Gerund (do something as an experiment or test)

I wouldn’t try rafting; it is very dangerous.

To agree

Infinitive

He agreed to help her.

To consent

Infinitive

She consented to go with her.

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Verb + Preposition ‘at’ / ‘to’ Verb + ‘at’

Verb + ‘to’

Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Laugh / smile AT Aim / point AT -Why are you looking at me? -I was laughing at his joke.

Talk / speak TO Listen TO Write TO Invite (somebody) TO Explain (something) TO (someone) Apologize TO (someone)



-Can I speak to Jane please? -I invited 200 people to my wedding. -I need to apologize to my friend because I shouted at her yesterday.

Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.

Shout AT somebody – when you are angry Shout TO somebody – so that they can hear you Throw something AT somebody/something – in order to hit them Throw something TO somebody – for somebody to catch

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eClass English

Conditionals

Conditionals

Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)* * For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below. For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.

Conditionals are used to talk about possibility. Conditional

Structure Examples

Uses

Zero

‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + present simple

Used to describe something that is generally or always true.



If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.

First

‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ + infinitive without ‘to’



‘If’ the weather is good, I will go to the beach.

Second (present)

‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’

Used to describe a situation that is likely.

Used to describe a situation that is not likely.

If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house. Describes a hypothetical situation in the present.

Third ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + (perfect) ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

Used to describe a hypothetical situation in the past. It describes a situation that is impossible.

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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle If I had seen you, I would have said hello. Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible and never happened. Example: Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a few days ago. Liz said: ‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’ What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.

The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’ Structure ‘Should’ + ‘have’ + past participle

Use

Example

Regret or reproach (to blame someone)

I should have studied harder. (regret)



You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)

(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption regarding the past

You should have received my e-mail. I sent it half an hour ago.

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15

Subjunctive and Wishes

eClass English

Present Subjunctive FORM

Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. USE

The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain expressions (see below). Examples: • I suggest that he study. • Is it essential that we be there? • Don recommended that you the committee. NOTICE:

The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/sheform of the verb. Examples:

YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’: •You try to study often.

HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’: •He tries to study often.

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME: •It is important that you try to study often.

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE: •It is important that he try to study often.

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Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs: to advise (that) to ask (that) to command (that) to demand (that) to desire (that) to insist (that) to propose (that) to recommend (that) to request (that) to suggest (that) to urge (that)

Examples

•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month. •Donna requested Frank come to the party. •The teacher insists that her students be on time.

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions: It is best (that) It is crucial (that) It is desirable (that) It is essential (that) It is imperative (that) It is important (that) It is recommended (that) It is urgent (that) It is vital (that) It is a good idea (that) It is a bad idea (that)

Examples

•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives. •It is important she attend the meeting. •It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the Grand Canyon.

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Negative Forms of Subjunctive

The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and ive forms. Examples: •The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting. •The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours. •I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

The Past Subjunctive Past Forms of the Subjunctive The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative. Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion. Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion. However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings. (‘was’ is often used informally in speech) Examples He wishes he were a better student. If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.* *This is also a second conditional. See below. The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’. Examples If only I had more money. I wish I were thinner. Suppose she were married. It’s not as if I were ugly. Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive and part 2 a conditional. If only I had more money, I would buy a new car. 1 2

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Wishes and Regrets Wish = To show you want a situation to be different

Regret = To feel sorrow or remorse for something you did/did not do.

Wishes in the present To make wishes about the present, use the past tense. For the verb ‘to be’, use ‘were’. Situation: My sister is untidy. Wish: “I wish she were tidier.” Wishes in the past (regret) To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect. Situation: I didn’t go on a vacation this year. Wish: “I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.” Wishes about ability To make wishes about ability use ‘could’. Situation: I can’t play a musical instrument. Wish: “I wish I could play a musical instrument.” Wishes about habit and free will To make wishes about habit and free will use ‘would’. Situation: He sings in the office. Wish: “I wish he wouldn’t sing in the office.” (In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)

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eClass English

ives

The ive Voice

ive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle The ive exists in every tense. We use an active verb to say what the subject does. We use a ive verb to say what happens to the subject. When we use the ive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant. If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’

Tense

Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Future simple ‘will’ ‘To be going to’ future Present Perfect Past Perfect

Active

He cleans the room. He is cleaning the room. He cleaned the room. He was cleaning the room. He will clean the room He is going to clean the room. He has cleaned the room. He had cleaned the room.

ive

The room is cleaned by him. The room is being cleaned by him. The room was cleaned by him. The room was being cleaned by him. The room will be cleaned by him. The room is going to be cleaned by him. The room has been cleaned by him. The room had been cleaned by him.

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The Impersonal Structure

An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different ways to form an impersonal structure. ive form without the agent

We are expected at 7pm. (Somebody expects us)

The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’

We drive on the left side of the road. (the speaker is included in the group of people in question)



You drink a lot of tea in Britain. (the listener is included)



They are very friendly in Ireland. (neither the speaker nor listener is included)

People (plural meaning) Somebody/someone (singular meaning)

People in Ireland are very friendly. Someone is on the phone for you.

Other Impersonal Structures: gerund + object + ‘to be’ conjugated + (adverb of frequency) + adjective

Reading English newspapers is often difficult.

It + ‘to be’ conjugated + (adverb of frequency) + adjective + infinitive

It is sometimes exciting to walk in the pouring rain.

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Playing tennis is excellent exercise.

It was strange to say that Russian is easier than English.

17

Reported Speech

eClass English

The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech

Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the exact words. I’m feeling ill.

You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this: 1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech) Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’ 2. You can use reported speech. Tom said that he was feeling ill. Reported speech: -The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told) -The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time) -‘That’ is optional. Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech: Direct speech She said “I watch TV every day.” She said “I am watching.” She said “I watched TV.” She said “I have watched TV.” She said “I will watch TV.” She said “I am going to watch TV.” She said “I can watch TV.” She said “I may watch TV.” She said “I must watch TV.” She said “I should watch TV.” She said “I ought to watch TV.” She said “Watch TV.”

Reported speech She said (that) she watched TV every day. She said she was watching TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she had watched TV. She said she would watch TV. She said she was going to watch TV. She said she could watch TV. She said she might watch TV. She said she had to watch TV. She said she should watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV. She told someone to watch TV. *

*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’. 121

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General Guidelines for Reported Speech 1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing. 2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something immediately after it was said. Immediate Reporting:

What did the teacher just say? He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.

Later Reporting:

I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any assignments? He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.

3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained. She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA. 4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.

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eClass English

Phrasal Verbs

The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the meaning. Here are some common phrasal verbs in English. Preposition Use Away

Estrangement: to go away Disappearance: to sweep away

Example

Back

Backward movement: to stand back Return to point of departure: to bring back Reply: to answer back

The student answered back to the teacher.

Down

Downward movement: to go down Writing: to write down Decrease: to turn down

Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.

In

Inward movement: to get in Visit: to drop in

I will drop in later and see how you are doing.

Off

Averting: to put off Departure: to go off / to take off

I have put off my dental appointment. because I have a class.

On

Start: to turn on / switch on Continuation: to go on

Can you turn on the fan please?

Out

Outward movement: to move out Outside: to eat out Distribution: to give out

I always eat out on Fridays.

Over

Repetition: to say over Action done with care: to think over

I will have to think over your offer carefully.

Up

Upward movement: to climb up Increased volume: to speak up

Speak up, I can’t hear you.

All evidence of the crime was swept away.

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Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verb. Example: I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object. Example: He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object. Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an object. Example: I made up the story. ‘Story’ is the object of ‘made up’. Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the preposition. Example: I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition. Example: I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places. Example: I looked the number up in the phone book. I looked up the number in the phone book.

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WARNING! Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both places, you must put the object between the verb and the preposition if the object is a pronoun. Example: I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT

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Expressions

‘To get’ + Adjective

The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective : meanings such as: to become, show a change of state

Some adjectives used with ‘get’

To obtain To receive Examples: To buy It gets dark early in winter. To reach I’m getting tired of working To arrive (at a place) such long hours. To become It is getting warmer.

get hungry get thirsty get tired get ready get serious get wet get better get prepared get dressed get bigger

Get dressed

‘To look forward to’

‘To look forward to’ = To think of a future event with anticipation Structure Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun Example: I am looking forward to the vacation. Structure Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund Examples: I look forward to hearing from you. He is looking forward to seeing you.

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eClass English

‘Kind of’ followed by a noun

‘kind of (a/an)’ + noun When you ask for a more precise definition or description of something.

What kind of (a) problem are you having?* What kind of experience do you have?



* It is more informal to include ‘a’

To describe something in an approximate way, not precise.

She’s kind of rude. It’s a kind of telephone but plays music as well.

‘Kind of like (/a/an)’ + noun

To compare one thing to another in an approximate or partial way.

It looks kind of like an earring, but is much bigger.

‘Kind of’ = sort of / type of

What sort/type of computer is that? = What kind of computer is that?



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‘To be likely’

‘To be likely’ = high probability of something happening.

Present ‘To be likely’ + infinitive

He is likely to the exam. The meeting is likely to be very long.

Past ‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive

The meeting was likely to be very long.

Negative ‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive

He is unlikely to come.

Related expression ‘It is likely that’

It’s likely that it will rain. It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.

‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle = an opinion about a past event.

He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment. They are likely to have finished early.

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eClass English

‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’ ‘To be left’ /‘to have left’ = remaining, not used, still there Structure ‘to be left’

This is a ive structure.

The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.

Subject + ‘be left’ to have left

Example

This is an active structure.

Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’

Do you have any rooms left? Yes, we have some rooms left.

‘For the sake of’ ‘For the sake of’ = in the interests of Structure

Examples

‘For’ + possessive adjective + ‘sake’

For his sake For their sake

‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund

For the sake of the children For the sake of saving

‘For’ + noun / noun phrase +’ -’s sake’

For John’s sake For the children’s sake

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Expressions with ‘to have’

Use

Examples

To have a bath To have lunch To have a rest To have a look

Did you have a bath yesterday? We will have lunch later. I’d like to have a rest before going out. Have a look at this!

Here are some fixed expressions with the verb ‘to have’

‘To have reason to’ + infinitive ( to analyze causes and consequences) ‘To have to do with something’ ( to say what the topic is)

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We have reason to hope for continued success. The report has to do with our financial results for the last quarter.

eClass English

Baseball Expressions

Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and business contexts. Expression

Example

Touch base

It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.

Playing field

Now that more companies have made offers, we’re dealing with a bigger playing field.

On the ball

Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.

Ballpark figure

I can only give you a ballpark figure.

In the ballpark

The offer isn’t in the ballpark yet.

Big league

We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.

To cover one’s bases

This is a complicated transaction; make sure to cover your bases.

Home run

Jenny hit a home run with that deal.

Play hard ball

We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to get this deal.

Right off the bat

Dan started criticizing right off the bat.

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‘To be at stake’ Structure

Use

‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. This may be used to talk about threats to someone or something’s well-being or reputation.

Example

If we don’t respond to this crisis now, our financial stability will be at stake.

The firm’s reputation is at stake following the recall of its latest product.

These expressions are similar in meaning ‘to be at stake’: ‘to be in jeopardy’, ‘to be on the line’, ‘to be at risk’

Expressions of Increase

There are several different words and expressions to describe increase. Use

Expression

To describe increase in a To rise general way. To climb

Example

Share values rose steadily last quarter.

Next year, productivity should climb sharply.

To talk about slow or gradual increase.

To creep up To edge up To inch up

Stocks crept up last quarter.

To describe sharp and sudden increase.

To take off To skyrocket To shoot up To soar To go through the roof

The company is only two years old, but it has really taken off.

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Prices are inching up due to inflation.

Stocks are skyrocketing following economic recovery.

20

eClass English

Other

‘There is’ / ‘There are’

Affirmative

Negative

Question

Plural: There are

There are not There aren’t

Are there…..?

Singular: There is

There is not There isn’t There’s not

Is there…….?

Examples:

STATION

There’s a train in the station.

There’s a man on the roof.

MT W TFSS 1 8 15 22 29

2 3 9 10 16 17 May 23 24 30 31

4 11 18 25

5 12 19 26

6 13 20 27

7 14 21 28

There are seven days in a week.

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Dates

First 1st, Second 2nd, Third 3rd

Ordinal Numbers

Fourth 4th, Fifth 5th, Sixth 6th, Seventh 7th, Eighth 8th, Ninth 9th, Tenth 10th…



20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd …. 30th, 31st, 32nd, 33rd….

Days

Years Up until the year 2000, years are pronounced in two parts: 1925 = 19part1 25part2 = ‘Nineteen1 twenty-five2’ Date (written form)

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Weekly Calendar Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Week of_______________ Saturday Wednesday Thursday Friday

1998 = nineteen ninety-eight 2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)

1: American format = July 2, 2010 month / day / year = 07/02/2010 2: British format = 2 July 2010 day / month / year = 02/07/2010

eClass English

Time What time………? = what time of day? What time is it? What time do you get up?

O’clock

The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour. It’s six o’clock.

British English

To express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.

11

12

1 2

10

11

7

6

1

11

2

7

It’s twenty past four.

6

1 2 3

9

4

8

5

12

10 3

9

4

8

12

10

3

9

4

8 7

5

It’s quarter past three

6

5

It’s half past twelve.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.

11

12

1

11

2

10

4

8 7

6

12

1 2

10 3

9 5

It’s ten to two.

3

9 4

8 7

6

5

It’s quarter to five.

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American English

To express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)

11

12

1

11

2

10

7

6

1

11

2

7

5

It’s twenty after four.

6

1 2 3

9

4

8

12

10 3

9

4

8

12

10 3

9

4

8 7

5

It’s quarter after three.

6

5

It’s twelve thirty.

To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.

11

12

1

11

2

10

7

6

1 2

4

8 7

5

It’s ten to two.

3

9

4

8

12

10 3

9

6

5

It’s quarter to five. In both British and American English You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes. 6:05 6:10 6:15 6:20 6:30 6:45 6:55

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It’s six o five. It’s six ten. It’s six fifteen. It’s six twenty. It’s six thirty. It’s six forty-five. It’s six fifty-five.

eClass English

‘Have or ‘Make’ without ‘to’ Use

Structure

Example

To cause something to be done

‘to have’ + direct object + past participle

He had his car repaired. She had her hair cut.

To cause someone to do something

to ‘have’ or ‘make’ + I had him service my car. direct object + infinitive without ‘to’ He made me laugh so much.

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‘To Let’

‘Let’ means the same as ‘to allow’ or ‘to permit’ but is more informal.

‘Let’ + object + infinitive without ‘to’ Example: Please allow me to buy you a drink. Please let me buy you a drink. Example: My parents don’t allow me to go out at night. My parents don’t let me go out at night. , in the third person present we use ‘lets’ but in the past simple we use ‘let’.

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Conjugation of ‘to let’ The present

The past simple

I You He/She/It We They

I You He/She/It We They

let let lets let let

let let let let let

eClass English

‘When’ / ‘While’ + present

With conjunctions of time, like ‘when’ and ‘while’, we use the present tense. Structure

‘Will’ + verb, conjunction of time + present simple Examples: They will eat when they arrive. While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.

Conjunctions

after as soon as as long as as much as before while

of time

once until when whenever wherever

‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb Structure

‘How’ + adjective or adverb

Use

Forms an open question. (you can’t answer yes or no)

Examples

How tall are you? I am very tall. / I’m 1.60m



How high is Mt Everest? It is extremely high. / It’s 8848m



How often do you go to the cinema? I hardly ever go.

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‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’ Structure

‘Had better’

Use

Examples

Subject + ‘had better’ + infinitive -A firm suggestion without ‘to’ Subject + ‘had better’ + not -An order + infinitive without ‘to’

You had better tell her the bad news. You had better not finish the cake!

‘Would rather’ Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’

-To show preference

I would rather go for a swim.

Subject + ‘would rather’ + not + infinitive without ‘to’

I would rather not go for a swim.

‘Would’ + subject + ‘rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’

Would you rather go for a swim?

Expression of Preference

These expressions are used to talk about preference. Structure

‘Would prefer’



Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’ (‘d)

‘Would rather’

Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’ (‘d) Used mainly in speech.

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Examples

I’d prefer to talk to someone else. Would you prefer to stay at home?

He’d rather be on the beach. Would you rather stay here or go away?

eClass English

Words ending in ‘ever’

The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it doesn’t matter who/ what / which etc. (‘any person who’, ‘any thing that’ etc. or ‘the unknown person who’, ‘the unknown thing that’)

Word ending in ever Examples Whoever

Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.

Whatever

Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.

Whichever

Choose whichever book you like.

However

However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.

Whenever

Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky.

Wherever

Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca- Cola.

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‘Whether’ ‘Whether’ = to talk about choices or alternatives. Like ‘if’ it expresses uncertainty.

The differences between ‘whether’ and ‘if’: If

Whether

For situations with only one condition.

To discuss two or more alternatives.

You can have dessert if you eat your vegetables. (the son having dessert depends on consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)

I don’t know whether we should invest right now or not.





Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.



I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.



Use ‘whether’ with infinitives that come after ‘to’.



Jenny doesn’t know whether to study for her test or go to a movie with friends.

Answer yes or no questions with ‘whether’ or ‘if’. Sally asks: ‘Can you go shopping with me tonight?’ I’m not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. OR I’m not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight. It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them. 142

eClass English

Emphatic ‘do’

For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause. Use

Examples

Insistence on speaker’s point of view.

She does look pretty.

Confirmation of what precedes.

He said it would rain and it did rain.

Contradiction

He didn’t come to the party yesterday. He did come, but he didn’t stay long.

Persuasion using the imperative

‘I can’t do it! It’s too difficult!’ ‘Do try again!’

Verbs expressing impressions and feelings

Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste, to feel etc. They may be followed by: Structure

Examples

the preposition ‘like’

He looks like his father.



It sounds like you’re angry.

‘as if’ / ‘as though’

You look as if you don’t understand me. It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.

an adjective

He looks happy. This ice cream tastes good.

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‘I am told’

The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:

Structure

144

Examples

‘I am told’ (= I understand ) Instead of ‘I’ve been told’

I am told that you are in charge of the sales department.

‘I forget’ (= I can’t ) Instead of ‘I’ve forgotten’

What time is the match tonight? I forget.

‘I hear’ Instead of ‘I’ve heard’

I hear you have been promoted.