Cc6 Project 3k6f1j

INTRODUCTION ABOUT INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature. In order to do these things, the integumentary system works with all the other systems of your body, each of which has a role to play in maintaining the internal conditions that a human body needs to function properly.

FUNCTION OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:The integumentary system has many functions, most of which are involved in protecting and regulating body’s internal functions in a variety of ways:       

Protects the body's internal living tissues and organs Protects against invasion by infectious organisms Protects the body from dehydration Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperature Helps dispose of waste materials Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat, and cold Stores water and fat

COMPONENT OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:The integumentary system is composed not only of the skin, but also nails, glands, and hair. The most numerous component of the integumentary system is the integument or skin. The skin contains the superficial epidermis, which consists of epithelial tissue, and the deeper dermis which is formed from dense irregular connective tissue. The epidermis contains nerve endings for pain, which is why Tori felt the pain of the burn. The epidermis is avascular, which means it doesn’t have blood capillaries. Nutrients get to the epidermis from the vascular dermal layer. Only those cells closest to the dermis are able to receive the nutrients and these cells have rapid mitotic rates. The cells in the epidermis migrate to the surface, and then are shed daily. They are constantly being replaced by the cells deeper. The dermis contains the blood vessels, sweat and oil glands. The dermis also has receptors for touch. Below the dermis is the hypodermis layer. This is the fatty layer that anchors the skin to your body. The hypodermis is technically not part of the integumentary system. The skin also contains sweat and oil (sebaceous) glands. Sweat glands release sensible perspiration to cool us when we overheat. Sweat is mostly water but also contains electrolytes and a waste product known as urea. Urea is one of the main components of urine too! Sebaceous glands produce oil, otherwise known as sebum. Sebum and sweat form a chemical barrier on our skin to decrease bacterial growth on our skin. Hair and nails are additional structures associated with the integumentary system. Body hair takes up space to compete with pathogens for room on our skin. Body hair also insulates us. Did you know that there are approximately 100,000 hairs on your head and 30,000 in a man’s beard? Fingernails and toenails provide leverage and protection when we grab and manipulate objects.

The epidermis contains the pigment melanin, which protects our cells from UV radiation. Melanin is also responsible for our hair, skin and eye color. Keratin was previously mentioned and is important for decreasing water loss from our skin. Many skin lotions contain keratin to prevent dry skin. Another important protein is collagen. Collagen provides strength to our skin. Collagen has a white appearance and often when the skin heals extra collagen is placed at the site. Sometimes this results in a white scar.

INTEGUMENT OF AMPHIBIANS:The earliest tetrapods had dermal scales, which probably functioned as armor. Among living amphibians, caecilians have tiny dermal scales called osteoderms. Their homology with dermal armor is not clear. Amphibians mark the transition between the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Skin remains similar to its aquatic roots and resembles the skin of the fish; however, scales are not present. To prevent water loss, amphibians utilize mucus, which is a similar mechanism that fish use to prevent taking on additional water. However, the mucus in amphibians is secreted by multicellular glands rather than the unicellular glands in fish. Because the integument of amphibians makes them somewhat vulnerable, many amphibians also secrete toxins that prevent them from being eaten by other organisms. The primary gland responsible for the secretion is the parotid gland, located behind the ear of amphibians. Many amphibians must keep their skin moist at all times because it is their primary respiratory organ. The skin is membranous and oxygen can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream.Mucous glands in the skin help keep amphibians’ skin moist.Amphibians’ skin is very thin and permeable.Many amphibians must keep their skin moist at all times because it is their primary respiratory organ. The skin is membranous and oxygen can be absorbed directly into the bloodstream.The species in this group include frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts. All can breathe and absorb water through their very thin skin.Amphibians also have special skin glands that produce useful proteins. Some transport water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide either into or out of the animal. Others fight bacteria or fungal infections. And at least one—in each species—is used for defense.To

warn potential predators, the most toxic amphibians are also the most brightly colored. It is found on the skin of colorful poison dart frogs.Most modern amphibians lack horny scales or other protective devices. An exception is seen in the caecilians, a small group that has fishlike scales similar to those possessed by ancient and extinct forms. The amphibian epidermis has five to seven layers of cells formed from a basal stratum germinativum. At the skin surface, in with the external environment, the cells are keratinized to form a stratum corneum, which is best developed in amphibians that spend most of their time on land. The cells of this horny layer are not continuously shed but are periodically molted in sheets. The wartiness of toads results from local thickenings.Some amphibian families have disklike pads on their digits for adherence to underlying surfaces. During the breeding season the males of anurans (frogs and toads) and urodeles (salamanders and newts) develop nuptial pads on some digits of the forelimbs, which facilitate firm gripping of the females; the pads are induced to form by androgenic (male) hormones. The dermis is twolayered, having an outer and looser stratum spongiosum and an inner stratum compactum. Although some amphibians have external gills or internal lungs, for many the skin is a vital respiratory organ, and the dermis is richly supplied with blood vessels and lymph spaces. Chromatophores are located just below the junction of the dermis with the epidermis. The numerous mucous and poison glands originate from nests of epidermal cells that grow down into the dermis.

INTEGUMENT OF REPTILES:In the evolutionary sense, reptiles are the first truly terrestrial vertebrates, since they have dispensed with an aqueous environment for their larval development. Their main problem is to prevent desiccation by water loss through the skin. This is solved by the possession of a thick stratum corneum in which waxes are arranged in membranelike layers between the keratinized cells. Reptilian scales are overlapping folds of skin, each scale having an outer surface, an inner surface, and a hinge region. All the epidermal and dermal surfaces of each scale are continuous with those of the next scale.The cornified part of the epidermis is strengthened by a stiff material, beta keratin, which is present in place of or in addition to pliable alpha keratin. In crocodiles and many turtles the outer scale surface consists of beta keratin only, while the hinge region contains only alpha keratin. In lizards and snakes, however, both keratins form continuous layers, the alpha keratin lying below the beta keratin. In crocodiles and turtles there is continuous cell division in the stratum germinativum and exfoliation of cells at the skin surface. In snakes and lizards the germinal layer forms a complete new epidermal surface before the whole of the old cornified epidermis is sloughed, either in a single sheet or in portions.The shape and size of the scales vary in the different families and with the mode of life. Maximum flexibility of the skin is achieved in some forms by reduction of the scales to small, nonoverlapping granules. Among desert dwellers there is a tendency for some scales, particularly those on the head and tail, to be enlarged to form spines. Burrowing and secretive forms have a slippery body surface because of the presence of smooth, highly polished scales. The skin is often reinforced by bony plates, which lie beneath the superficial scales (though corresponding with them in size and shape); these plates may form a continuous protective armour. Other defensive, or sometimes offensive, devices associated with the skin and scales are the occasional development of horns or fringing folds that break up the animal’s

outline and colouring.The colours of reptiles are produced by both melanocytes in the epidermis and three types of chromatophores in the dermis: melanophores, which contain melanin; xanthophores, which contain yellow pigments; and iridophores, which contain reflecting platelets of colourless guanine. The pattern may be fixed, for concealment by camouflage, or the chromatophores may provide for rapid colour change.Reptilian skin possesses glands, but they are usually small. Most are holocrine; some are tubular. Lizards and snakes have small glands that are related to the sloughing cycle, and all groups of reptiles appear to communicate by scent glands. For example, chelonians (turtles and tortoises) have glands in the throat, inguinal, and axillary regions, and snakes have saclike scent glands at the base of the tail.In Calotes (Reptile) the skin is rough, thick, dry and scaly. Skin is suited to the terrestrial environment which prevents any loss of water. Epidermis has a heavily cornified stratum, corneum which produce into hormy epidermal scales. The exoskeleton of scales is periodically cast off either in fragments or as a sin' gle piece. In turtles & tortoises the epidermal bony plates are formed. In others the scales are modified into shields, scutes, spines etc. The glands are practically absent. The only glands present are 'scent glands'. Dermis is thick having stratum spongiosum & stratum com pactum. Stratum spongiosum has numerous chromatophores. They exhibit wide colour patterns. Distal ends of the digits have nails or claws which formed from the homy epidermis. These grow parallel to the surface of skin and formed of a dorsal plate 'unguis' (nailplate) and a ventral plate sub unguis ( Horny teeth are present which are acrodont or pleurodont Similar claws are with unguis in the form of a long plate of keratin.sole plate).

INTEGUMENT OF BIRDS:The avian epidermis is thin, delicate, and clothed in feathers, except on the obviously naked areas of the legs, feet, beak, comb, and wattle. On the legs and feet, and sometimes elsewhere, the cornified layer is thickened to form scales of several types. The dermis, also thin, consists mostly of a network of connective tissue fibres and muscle fibres that help to adjust the feathers. In larger birds, such as the ostrich, the skin is thick enough to allow it to be processed into leather. The scales resemble those of reptiles in possessing layers containing beta keratin and alpha keratin. Feathers, which consist of beta keratin, are considered to have evolved from reptilian scales They are periodically molted, and other keratinized structures such as the bill and claws may be molted as well. Pigment is primarily restricted to feathers and scales. Specialized nerve endings are present throughout the skin. Various holocrine and tubular glands have been observed, but nearly all are small and inconspicuous. The exception is the holocrine uropygial gland, or preen gland, which is located on the back just in front of the tail and secretes oil for grooming the feathers. It is largest in aquatic birds. Feathers are unique to birds. Those of adults are irably engineered to be lightweight yet strong. They are of three basic types, each associated with certain functions. Contour feathers (including the flight and tail feathers) define the body outline and serve as aerodynamic devices; filoplumes (hair feathers) and plumules(down feathers) are used principally as insulation, to conserve body heat. Colours and patterns in feathers serve as protective coloration or for sexual display. In most birds contour feathers are not uniformly distributed over the surface of the body but are arranged in feather tracts (pterylae) separated from one another by regions of almost naked skin (apteria). The only exceptions are the ostrichlike birds, the penguins, and the South American screamers, in which the even distribution

of plumage has probably been secondarily acquired. Feather tracts differ in arrangement in different species and hence are useful in the classification of birds. The wing tract includes the flight feathers proper (remiges) and their coverts (tectrices). The remiges include the primaries, arising from the “hand” and digits and attached to the hand’s skeleton; the secondaries, arising from the forewing and attached to the ulna; and the tertials (when present), arising from the upper wing and attached to the humerus. The tectrices cover the bases of the remiges, overlapping and decreasing in size toward the leading edge of the wing. The spinal (dorsal) tract extends the whole length of the bird, excepting the head, along and on both sides of the spinal column. In gallinaceous birds this tract may be subdivided from front to back (though not separated by apteria) into the regions of the hackle, the cape, the back, and the saddle. Each region is distinguished by the form and pattern of its constituent feathers. On the ventral surface of the bird are paired breast tracts, with a ventral tract between them. The tail tract includes the tail feathers (rectrices) and their coverts. Other tracts cover the head, base of the wings, and legs. A contour feather of an adult bird tends to be almost bilaterally symmetrical. It consists of a tapering central shaft, the rachis, to which are attached a large number of tapering parallel barbs. These in turn carry many minute elongated barbules on both their distal and proximal faces. The distal barbules bear tiny hooklets (hamuli) that fit into grooves on the proximal barbules of the next higher barb. In this way the barbules overlap and interlock to form the coherent web, or vane, of the feather. Barbules in the basal portions of feathers are long, delicate threads and do not bind successive barbs together; consequently, this part of the feather is fluffy. The filoplumes, which arise at the bases of contour feathers, are inconspicuous hairlike feathers bearing a small tuft of barbs at their

apexes. Filoplumes appear to be present in all birds, but only in certain species do they project beyond the contour feathers—on the thighs of cormorants, for example.Plumules are present in young birds before they develop the adult plumage. In adults the plumules are generally scant and are concealed by contour feathers; however, in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, they form a thick, insulating undercovering comparable to the underfur of seals. Their barbs do not form coherent vanes but are long, loose, soft, and fluffy. Their structure is much simplified, and a rachis may be entirely lacking. In herons and some hawks the tips of the plumules disintegrate into a fine scaly powder that becomes distributed over the plumage, providing protection against wetting and giving it a peculiar sheen; accordingly, these specialized down feathers are called powder down.Feathers get their colours from a number of pigments. Melanin is responsible for black, gray, brown, and related tints; yellow or reddish brown granules of phaeomelanin and dark brown granules of eumelanin are transferred to the epithelial cells of the feather from melanocytes. Some feathers are coloured bright yellow, vivid red, green, violet, or blue by carotenoids and other rare pigments. Cosmetic coloration of the feathers by the secretion of the preen gland is exploited by pelicans. Not all coloration requires pigments. The striking white of sea gulls and swans is a “structural colour” produced by the reflection of light by irregularly distributed air-filled cavities. Blue, green, and violet can also be structurally produced, as, for example, in kingfishers and parrots.

INTEGUMENT OF MAMMALS:An important distinguishing character of mammals is their hair. They also possess many other horny derivatives of the epidermis, including nails, claws, hooves, quills, and horns. All mammalian hard keratin, as well as the soft keratin of the stratum corneum, is of the alpha type. Bony dermal plates are found in the armadillo. Antlers, too, are made of bone and derived from the dermis, but they have an epidermal covering—the velvet—when newly grown. Skin structure The mammalian epidermis has several layers of cells, known as keratinocytes, which arise by cell division in a basal stratum germinativum. This rests on a basement membrane closely anchored to the surface of the dermis. Newly formed cells move outward, and at first form part of the prickle cell layer (stratum spinosum), in which they are knit together by plaquelike structures called desmosomes. Next they move through a granular layer (stratum granulosum), in which they become laden with keratohyalin, a granular component of keratin. Finally the cells flatten, lose their nuclei, and form the stratum corneum. The dead cells at the skin surface are ultimately sloughed, or desquamated. In thick, glabrous skin lacking hair follicles, such as that on human palms and soles, a clear layer, called the stratum lucidum, can be distinguished between the stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum.The important barrier to outward loss of water or inward age of chemicals lies in a compact zone of the lower stratum corneum. There the spaces between the layers of the cornified cells are tightly packed with lipid (waxy) platelets that have been produced inside so-called membrane coating granules within the underlying epidermal cells. As well as the clear horizontal stratification of the epidermis, a vertical organization is also apparent, at least in nonglabrous skin, in the sense that the ascending keratinizing cells

appear to form regular columns.In the basal layer, groups of keratinocytes are each associated with a single dendritic (branching) pigment cell to form “epidermal melanocyte units.” In addition to keratinocytes and melanocytes, the mammalian epidermis contains two other cell types: Merkel cells and Langerhans cells. Merkel cells form parts of sensory structures. Langerhans cells are dendritic but unpigmented and are found nearer the skin surface than melanocytes. After a century of question about their purpose, it is now clear that they have a vital immunologic function.The dermis forms the bulk of the mammalian skin. It is composed of an association of connective tissue fibres, mainly collagen, with a ground substance of mucopolysaccharide materials (glycosaminoglycans), which can hold a quantity of water in its domain. Two regions can be distinguished—an outer papillary layer and an inner reticular layer. The papillary layer is so called by reason of the numerous microscopic papillae that rise into the epidermis, especially in areas of wear or friction on the skin. These papillae, not to be confused with the “dermal papillae” of the hair follicles (see below), are arranged in definite patterns beneath epidermal ridges. In humans these external ridges are responsible for the fingerprints, or dermatoglyphs. The reticular layer has denser collagen than the papillary layer, and it houses the various skin glands, vessels, muscle cells, and nerve endings. Hair In evolution, the overriding importance of hair is to insulate the warmblooded mammals against heat loss. Hairs have other uses, however. Their function as sensory organs may, indeed, predate their role in protection from cold. Large stiff hairs (vibrissae), variously called whiskers, sensory hairs, tactile hairs, feelers, and sinus hairs, are found in all mammals except humans and are immensely helpful to nightprowling animals. Vibrissae are part of a highly specialized structure that contains a mass of erectile tissue and a rich sensory nerve supply. These specialized hairs are few in number, their distribution being

confined chiefly to the lips, cheeks, and nostrils and around the eyes; they occur elsewhere only occasionally. Human eyelashes consist of sensory hairs that cause reflex shutting of the eyelid when a speck of dust hits them.Hair may also be concerned in sexual or social communication, either by forming visible structures, like the mane of the lion or the human beard, or by disseminating the product of scent glands, as in the ventral gland of gerbils or the human axillary organ. Hair is important as well in determining the coloration and pattern of the mammalian coat, serving either as camouflage or as a means of calling attention to the animal or a specific part of its body. In essence, each hair is a cylinder of compacted and keratinized cells growing from a pit in the skin—the hair follicle. The follicle consists mainly of a tubular indentation of the epidermis that fits over a small stud of dermis—the dermal papilla—at its base. Indeed, it is formed in the embryo by just such as interaction between its constituents, the epidermis growing inward as a peg that ultimately invests a small group of dermal cells.The epidermal components of an active hair follicle consist of an outer layer of polyhedral cells, forming the outer root sheath, and an inner horny stratum, the inner root sheath. This inner sheath is composed of three layers, known respectively as Henle’s layer (the outermost), consisting of horny, fibrous, oblong cells; Huxley’s layer, with polyhedral, nucleated cells containing pigment granules; and the cuticle of the root sheath, having a layer of downwardly imbricate scales (overlapping like roof tiles) that fit over the upwardly imbricate scales of the hair proper. The outer root sheath is surrounded by connective tissue. This consists internally of a vascular layer separated from the root sheath by a basement membrane—the hyaline layer of the follicle. Externally, the tissue has a more open texture corresponding to the deeper part of the dermis that contains the larger branches of the arteries and veins.A small muscle, the arrector pili, is attached to each hair follicle, with the exception of the small follicles that produce only fine vellus hairs. If this muscle contracts, the hair becomes more erect and the follicle is dragged upward. This creates a

protuberance on the skin surface, producing the temporarily roughened condition that is popularly called gooseflesh. The hair shaft is composed chiefly of a pigmented, horny, fibrous material, which consists of long, tapering fibrillar cells that have become closely impacted. Externally, this so-called cortex is covered by a delicate layer of imbricated scales forming the cuticle. In many hairs the centre of the shaft is occupied by a medulla, which frequently contains minute air bubbles, giving it a dark appearance. The medullary cells tend to be grouped along the central axis of the hair as a core, continuous or interrupted, of single, double, or multiple columns. The cuticular scales of mammalian hairs are predominantly of the overlapping, imbricate type, with edges that are rounded, minutely notched, or flattened. They vary in size, shape, and edge structure and are distinctive for each species. Among the higher primates, for example, those of chimpanzees are slightly oval, those of gorillas and humans have shallowly notched edges, and those of orangutans have edges that are deeply notched. In many deer the cortical substance can hardly be distinguished; almost the entire hair appears to be composed of thin-walled polygonal cells. In the peccary the cortical envelope sends radial projections inward, the spaces between being occupied by medullary substance; and this, on a large scale, is the structure of the porcupine’s quills. One of the most remarkable mammalian hairs is that of the Australian duckbill, or platypus, where the lower portion of the shaft is slender and woollike, while the free end terminates as a flattened, spearshaped, pigmented hair with broad imbricate scales. In the three-toed sloth a microscopic alga grows between the cuticular scales of the hairs and appears to be symbiotic; its presence gives a curious greenish gray hue to the coat of the sloth and helps to disguise the animal among the trees. The activity of hair follicles is cyclic. After an active period (known as anagen), the follicle es through a short transition phase (catagen) to enter a resting phase (telogen). In this process, cell division ceases,

and the dermal papilla is released from the epidermal matrix, which becomes reduced to a small, inactive, secondary germ. The base of the hair expands and becomes keratinized to form a “club,” which is held in the follicle until the next cycle begins. A new period of anagen starts with cell proliferation of the secondary germ, which then extends inward to reinvest the dermal papilla. After the new hair is formed, the old club hair is shed, or molted. The events of early anagen are, in effect, a reenactment of the early development of the hair follicle.The final length of any hair depends mainly on the duration of anagen and varies between body sites and from animal to animal. Hairs on the back of a rat take three weeks to grow fully, whereas the follicles on the human scalp may be continuously active for three years or more.The cyclic activity of hair follicles is the mechanism by which mammals molt; it thus enables animals to alter their coats as they grow or as they adjust to changing temperature-control or camouflage requirements. In some mammals moltingtakes place in a pattern, so that the follicles act in synchrony in a particular area of the body. In the human scalp the follicles are out of step with each other, and there is continuous loss of club hairs. Glands The skin glands of mammals are of three major types. Associated with hair follicles are oil-secreting sebaceous glands as well as tubular glands, which produce an aqueous secretion. Sebaceous glands are termed holocrine because their secretion involves complete disintegration of their cells, which are constantly replaced. Tubular, or merocrine, glands extrude their secretion into a central lumen. The tubular glands of the hair follicle are usually classified as apocrine because it is believed that, in some glands at least, secretion involves a breaking off of part of the gland cells. A second type of merocrine gland, not associated with hair follicles, is termed eccrine because the cells remain intact during secretion. Eccrine glands occur in hairy skin only in humans and some primates; but the footpad glands, which

increase friction and thus prevent slipping in many mammalian species, are of a similar type.A major function of skin glands is the production of odours for sexual or social communication. Many species in all but a few mammalian orders have specialized aggregations of glandular units for this purpose. These occur in almost every area of the body. Some, like the chin and anal glands of the rabbit, contain only tubular units; others, like the abdominal gland of the gerbil, are purely sebaceous; still others, like the side glands of shrews, contain batteries of both holocrine and tubular units.In some large mammals an important function of merocrine glands is temperature control. Horses and cattle, for example, have apocrine glands for this purpose, but the superbly effective cooling system of humans is served by eccrine sweat glands.

INTEGUMENT OF FISH:Fishes have a more or less smooth, flexible skin dotted with various kinds of glands, both unicellular and multicellular. Mucus-secreting glands are especially abundant. Poison glands, which occur in the skin of many cartilaginous fishes and some bony fishes, are frequently associated with spines on the fins, tail, and gill covers. Photophores, light-emitting organs found especially in deep-sea forms, may be modified mucous glands. They may be used as camouflage or to permit recognition, either for repulsion to delimit territory or for attraction in courtship.Also formed within the skin of many fishes are the skeletal elements known as scales . They may be divided into several types on the basis of composition and structure. Cosmoid scales, characteristic of extinct lungfishes and not found in any fishes today, are similar to the ganoid scales of living species. Placoid scales (or denticles) are spiny, toothlike projections seen only in cartilaginous fishes. Ganoid scales, sometimes considered a modification of the placoid type, are chiefly bony but are covered with an enamel-like substance called ganoin. These rather thick scales, present in some primitive bony fishes, are well developed in the gars.Cycloid scales appear to be the inner layer of ganoid or cosmoid scales. Found in carps and similar fishes, they are thin, large, round or oval, and arranged in an overlapping pattern; growth rings are evident on the free edges. Ctenoid scales are similar to cycloid, except that they have spines or comblike teeth along their free edges; these scales are characteristic of the higher bony fishes—perches and sunfishes, for example. Some fishes, such as catfishes and some eels, have no scales.Among the cartilaginous fishes, sharks have a very tough skin. Scattered over it are denticles, each with a pulp cavity, around the edge of which is a layer of odontoblasts. These cells secrete the dentine, or calcareous material, of the scale. Outside the dentine is the enamel, secreted by the overlying ectoderm. When the denticles pierce through the ectoderm,

no more enamel can be added.The dominant modern fishes, teleosts, are characterized by bony scales covered with skin. The epithelium of a trout’s epidermis provides the animal with an inert covering of keratin. The scales lie in the dermis as thin, overlapping plates with the exposed part bearing the pigment cells. The scale is deposited in a series of annual rings, since its growth occurs rapidly in spring and summer and rarely in winter.