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Acute cholangitis UpToDate
Official reprint from UpToDate® www.uptodate.com ©2017 UpToDate®
Acute cholangitis Author: Nezam H Afdhal, MD, FRI Section Editors: Sanjiv Chopra, MD, MA, Stephen B Calderwood, MD Deputy Editor: Shilpa Grover, MD, MPH, AGAF
All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete. Literature review current through: May 2017. | This topic last updated: Mar 18, 2016. INTRODUCTION — Acute cholangitis is a clinical syndrome characterized by fever, jaundice, and abdominal pain that develops as a result of stasis and infection in the biliary tract. It is also referred to as ascending cholangitis. Cholangitis was first described by Charcot as a serious and lifethreatening illness; however, it is now recognized that the severity can range from mild to lifethreatening [1]. This topic will review the clinical features, diagnosis, and management of acute cholangitis. The approach to patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis, the management of common bile duct stones, and the endoscopic management of malignant biliary obstructions are discussed in detail elsewhere. (See "Primary sclerosing cholangitis in adults: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis" and "Primary sclerosing cholangitis in adults: Management" and "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy" and "Endoscopic stenting for malignant pancreaticobiliary obstruction".) PATHOGENESIS — Acute cholangitis is caused primarily by bacterial infection in a patient with biliary obstruction. The organisms typically ascend from the duodenum; hematogenous spread from the portal vein is a rare source of infection [2]. The most important predisposing factor for acute cholangitis is biliary obstruction and stasis. The most common causes of biliary obstruction in patients with acute cholangitis without bile duct stents are biliary calculi (28 to 70 percent), benign stenosis (5 to 28 percent), and malignancy (10 to 57 percent) [3]. In addition, acute cholangitis is a common complication of stent placement for malignant biliary obstruction (18 percent in one series) [4]. Mechanism of bacterial entry into the biliary tract — Bacteria are able to enter the biliary tract when the normal barrier mechanisms are disrupted. This may result in translocation of bacteria from the portal system or duodenum into the biliary tree. Normal barrier mechanisms include the sphincter of Oddi, which normally forms an effective mechanical barrier to duodenal reflux and ascending bacterial infection. In addition, continuous flushing action of bile plus the bacteriostatic activity of bile salts helps maintain bile sterility. Secretory IgA and biliary mucous probably function as antiadherence factors, preventing bacterial colonization. Biliary obstruction raises intrabiliary pressure and leads to increased permeability of bile ductules, permitting translocation of bacteria and toxins from the portal circulation into the biliary tract [3]. Elevated pressure also favors migration of bacteria from bile into the systemic circulation, increasing the risk of septicemia [2]. In addition, increased biliary pressure adversely affects a number of host defense mechanisms including [2]: ● Kupffer cells ● Bile flow ● IgA production https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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Duodenal bacteria are able to enter the biliary system in high concentrations when the barrier mechanism is disrupted, as occurs after endoscopic sphincterotomy, choledochal surgery, or biliary stent insertion. Acute cholangitis frequently develops after endoscopic or percutaneous manipulation with incomplete biliary drainage or as a late complication of biliary stent blockage. (See "Postendoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ER) septic complications", section on 'Ascending cholangitis'.) However, bacteria can also spontaneously through the sphincter of Oddi in small numbers. The presence of a foreign body, such as a stone or stent, can then act as a nidus for bacterial colonization. Bile taken from patients without obstruction is sterile or nearly sterile [5]. By comparison, approximately 70 percent of all patients with gallstones have evidence of bacteria in the bile [5,6]. Patients with common bile duct stones have a higher probability of bile culture positivity than those with gallstones in the gallbladder or cystic duct [5]. Bacteria can also be cultured from gallstones. In one study, for example, 80 percent of brown pigment stones were culture positive, and 84 percent showed scanning electron microscopic evidence of bacterial structures [7]. The organisms recovered in culture were typical of those seen in cholangitis (enterococci, 40 percent; Escherichia coli, 17 percent; Klebsiella spp, 10 percent), although the ratio of enterococci and E. coli was inverted from that usually found in infected bile. Some features of bacteria that may enhance pathogenicity in this setting include: ● External pili in gramnegative Enterobacteriaceae, which facilitate attachment to foreign surfaces, such as a stone or stent. ● A glycocalyx matrix composed of exopolysaccharides produced by bacteria that protect the organisms from host defense mechanisms and may hinder penetration of antibiotics [7]. Bacteriology — Culture of bile, ductal stones, and blocked biliary stents are positive in over 90 percent of cases of acute cholangitis, yielding a mixed growth of gramnegative and grampositive bacteria. The most common bacteria isolated are of colonic origin [8]: ● E. coli is the major gramnegative bacterium isolated (25 to 50 percent), followed by Klebsiella (15 to 20 percent) and Enterobacter species (5 to 10 percent). ● The most common grampositive bacteria are Enterococcus species (10 to 20 percent). ● Anaerobes, such as Bacteroides and Clostridia, are usually present as part of a mixed infection. They are rarely the sole infecting organisms, and it is not clear if they play a role in acute cholangitis. Recovery of anaerobes appears to be more common after repeated infections or surgery on the biliary tree. The frequency of anaerobic infection is underestimated by standard culture techniques. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS — The classic presentation of acute cholangitis is fever, abdominal pain, and jaundice (Charcot's triad), though only 50 to 75 percent of patients with acute cholangitis have all three findings [9]. Confusion and hypotension can occur in patients with suppurative cholangitis, producing Reynolds pentad, which is associated with significant morbidity and mortality [10]. If septic shock develops, multiorgan failure may be seen. Hypotension may be the only presenting symptom in elderly patients or those on glucocorticoids. Symptoms and examination findings — The most common symptoms of acute cholangitis are fever and abdominal pain, which are seen in approximately 80 percent of patients. Jaundice is less common and is seen in 60 to 70 percent of patients [11]. Patients with severe (suppurative) cholangitis may present with fever, abdominal pain, jaundice, hypotension, and mental status changes (Reynolds pentad). Older adults and patients receiving glucocorticoids may have atypical presentations (such as hypotension alone), which may lead to a delay in diagnosis and treatment. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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Laboratory tests — Routine laboratory tests typically reveal an elevated white blood cell count with neutrophil predominance, and a cholestatic pattern of liver test abnormalities, with elevations in the serum alkaline phosphatase, gammaglutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and bilirubin (predominantly conjugated) concentration [11]. However, a pattern of acute hepatocyte necrosis can be seen in which the aminotransferases may be as high as 2000 int. unit/L [12]. This pattern reflects microabscess formation in the liver. Liver biopsy in such cases shows neutrophils in the cholangioles with small abscesses and associated hepatocyte necrosis. Serum amylase can be increased to three to four times normal, suggesting associated pancreatitis. DIAGNOSIS — Diagnostic criteria (the 2013 Tokyo guidelines) have been proposed for acute cholangitis [13]. The diagnosis should be suspected if a patient has one of the following: ● Fever and/or shaking chills ● Laboratory evidence of an inflammatory response (abnormal white blood cell count, increased serum C reactive protein, or other changes suggestive of inflammation) and one of the following: ● Jaundice ● Abnormal liver chemistries (elevated alkaline phosphatase, gammaglutamyl transpeptidase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase) The diagnosis is considered definite if, in addition to meeting the criteria for a suspected diagnosis, the patient also has: ● Biliary dilation on imaging ● Evidence of an etiology on imaging (eg, a stricture, stone, or stent) Blood cultures should be performed in all patients in whom cholangitis is suspected to help direct antibiotic therapy. Cultures should also be obtained from bile or stents removed at endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ER) [14]. In patients with Charcot's triad and abnormal liver tests, we proceed directly to ER to confirm the diagnosis and provide biliary drainage since immediate drainage is a life saving procedure. In patients with signs and symptoms suggestive of acute cholangitis, but without Charcot's triad, we recommend transabdominal ultrasonography to look for common bile duct dilatation or stones. If the ultrasound shows ductal dilation or stones, it should be followed promptly (within 24 hours) by ER to provide biliary drainage (image 1 and picture 1). If the etiology of the obstruction remains unclear after ER, then cross sectional imaging (computed tomography or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography [MR]) should be performed. (See "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy".) Transabdominal ultrasonography may be negative when only small stones are present in the bile ducts (which occurs in 10 to 20 percent of cases) or with acute obstruction when the bile duct has not yet had time to dilate (image 2). If the transabdominal ultrasound is normal (ie, patients with suspected acute cholangitis), we proceed with magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MR) to look for bile duct stones or alternative diagnoses that may have been missed on transabdominal ultrasound (image 3) [1517]. For most patients who cannot undergo MR (eg, patients with implanted cardiac devices), we will proceed with ER if the liver tests are suggestive of biliary obstruction. If the liver tests are normal or if the patient is pregnant or at high risk for complications from ER, we will proceed with endoscopic ultrasound to look for evidence of bile duct stones or obstruction. If this subsequent testing fails to demonstrate biliary obstruction, an evaluation for alternative explanations for the patient's symptoms should be performed. (See "Magnetic resonance https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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cholangiopancreatography", section on 'Bile duct obstruction' and "Endoscopic ultrasound in patients with suspected choledocholithiasis", section on 'When to consider using EUS' and 'Differential diagnosis' below.) DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS — Typically, patients with acute cholangitis will have symptoms suggestive of the diagnosis (fever and abdominal pain) along with imaging findings that suggest biliary obstruction. In such cases, the diagnosis is then confirmed by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. However, patients with other disorders may also present with symptoms such as fever and abdominal pain. These alternative diagnoses should be considered in patients with atypical presentations and in patients with normal abdominal imaging. The differential diagnosis of fever and abdominal pain includes: ● Biliary leaks (see "Complications of laparoscopic cholecystectomy", section on 'Biliary and cystic duct leaks') ● Acute diverticulitis (see "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of acute diverticulitis in adults", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Cholecystitis (see "Acute cholecystitis: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Appendicitis (see "Acute appendicitis in adults: Clinical manifestations and differential diagnosis") ● Pancreatitis (see "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of acute pancreatitis", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Liver abscess (see "Pyogenic liver abscess", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Infected choledochal cysts (see "Biliary cysts", section on 'Clinical manifestations') ● Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis (see "Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Mirizzi syndrome (see "Mirizzi syndrome", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Intestinal perforation (see "Overview of the complications of peptic ulcer disease", section on 'Diagnosis') ● Right lower lobe pneumonia/empyema (see "Diagnostic approach to communityacquired pneumonia in adults") Typically, these entities can be differentiated from acute cholecystitis based on the clinical history (eg, a bile leak should be considered following laparoscopic cholecystectomy), laboratory tests, and findings on imaging studies and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. MANAGEMENT — Patients suspected of having acute cholangitis should be itted to the hospital for evaluation and treatment. Managing patients with acute cholangitis includes all of the following: ● Monitoring for and treating sepsis ● Providing empiric antibiotic coverage for colonic bacteria (table 1), followed by tailored therapy based on blood culture results ● Establishing of biliary drainage (typically with endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography [ER]) Managing sepsis — Patients with acute cholangitis may develop septic shock and thus require frequent monitoring to evaluate for signs of shock. Signs that shock is developing include hypotension, oliguria, changes in mental status, cool/clammy skin, and metabolic acidosis. If septic shock develops, in addition to treatment aimed at the infection (antibiotics and biliary drainage), patients also need ive care to correct physiologic abnormalities such as hypoxemia and hypotension. In cases of suspected sepsis, monitoring for multiorgan failure from endotoxemia is essential. (See "Evaluation and management of suspected sepsis and septic shock in adults".) Antibiotics — There is no consensus regarding the best initial antibiotic regimen for cholangitis [8,1821]. Typically, patients are given broadspectrum parenteral antibiotics aimed at colonic bacteria, taking into local patterns of resistance (table 1). Regardless of initial drug regimen, therapy should be modified to reflect the organism(s) recovered in blood cultures, if any. In general, antibiotics should be continued for 7 to 10 days [8]. (See 'Bacteriology' above and "Gramnegative bacillary bacteremia in adults", section on 'Antibiotic resistance'.) https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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Studies suggest that monotherapy with a beta lactambased regimen may be as effective as treatment with ampicillin and gentamicin with less toxicity [21]. Fluoroquinolones appear to have relatively high rates of biliary excretion [18], and one study found that ciprofloxacin may be as effective as triple therapy with ceftazidime, ampicillin, and metronidazole [20]. Biliary drainage — Endoscopic sphincterotomy with stone extraction and/or stent insertion (depending on the cause of the obstruction) is the treatment of choice for establishing biliary drainage in acute cholangitis (image 2). However, occasionally ER is not technically feasible or fails to establish biliary drainage. In such cases, biliary drainage can often be achieved by percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or open surgical decompression. (See "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy" and "Endoscopic stenting for malignant pancreaticobiliary obstruction" and "Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography" and "Common bile duct exploration".) Seventy to 80 percent of patients with acute cholangitis will respond to conservative management with antibiotic therapy. Patients should undergo biliary drainage as soon as possible, but if they respond to antibiotics, it is reasonable to wait until arrangements can be made to perform an ER in the endoscopy suite with a full complement of experienced staff, provided the procedure can be done within 24 to 48 hours [3,22,23]. If ER is delayed and the patient has not improved over the first 24 hours with conservative management, urgent biliary decompression is required. Risk factors for developing severe acute (suppurative) cholangitis in patients with common bile duct stones include impacted stones, active smoker status, age >70 years, and additional stones within the gallbladder [24]. Urgent biliary decompression is also indicated for patients with signs of acute suppurative cholangitis, such as: ● Persistent abdominal pain ● Hypotension despite adequate resuscitation ● Fever greater than 39°C (102°F) ● Mental confusion (a predictor of poor outcome) Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography — Common bile duct stones can be removed successfully in 90 to 95 percent of patients after sphincterotomy. Prior to injection of contrast, many endoscopists aspirate the bile duct to remove bile and pus in an attempt to decompress the biliary system and reduce the risk of inducing bacteremia with contrast injection. Occlusive cholangiography should not be performed in patients with acute cholangitis since it can promote the development of septicemia (picture 2). (See "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy".) Stones more than 2 cm in diameter generally require lithotripsy for fragmentation prior to removal. Intrahepatic stones can sometimes be removed with choledochoscopy, depending upon their size, number, and location. (See "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy" and "Cholangioscopy and pancreatoscopy".) Endoscopic drainage is associated with significantly lower overall rates of mortality and morbidity compared with surgical decompression (mortality rates of 4.7 to 10 percent versus 10 to 50 percent) [2528]. In patients with underlying coagulopathies that prevent sphincterotomy, in those in whom drainage is inadequate due to the presence of large stones, or in those who are too ill to leave the intensive care unit and undergo the procedure with fluoroscopy, drainage can be achieved by insertion of a nasobiliary catheter. This procedure permits active decompression of the common bile duct by aspiration, and provides a route for irrigation of the biliary system [29,30]. However, the catheters can become dislodged, particularly in elderly or confused patients.
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Placing a stent within the bile duct without first performing a sphincterotomy appears to permit adequate drainage and may be another option for patients with coagulopathies [31]. Percutaneous approaches — Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) can be considered when ER is unavailable, unsuccessful, or contraindicated. PTC involves transhepatic insertion of a needle into a bile duct, followed by injection of contrast material to opacify the bile ducts. PTC permits a number of therapeutic interventions, including drainage of infected bile, extraction of biliary tract stones, dilation of benign biliary strictures, or placement of a stent across a malignant stricture. (See "Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography".) Another alternative to ER for biliary drainage is placement of a percutaneous cholecystostomy tube in patients with an intact gallbladder. Surgery — Emergency surgery for acute cholangitis has largely been replaced by nonoperative biliary drainage. Once the acute cholangitis is controlled, patients with difficult ductal stones may undergo surgical exploration of the common bile duct for stone removal. Elective surgery carries a very low morbidity and mortality compared with emergency surgery. If emergent surgery is needed due to failure of a nonsurgical drainage procedure, choledochotomy with placement of a largebore T tube has a lower mortality than cholecystectomy with common bile duct exploration [28]. (See "Common bile duct exploration".) Failure to perform a cholecystectomy, even after a sphincterotomy has been performed, is associated with high recurrence rates. (See "Endoscopic management of bile duct stones: Standard techniques and mechanical lithotripsy", section on 'Cholecystectomy following sphincterotomy'.) Patients who are pregnant — In general, women with acute cholangitis who are pregnant are managed the same way as patients who are not pregnant, with antibiotics and ER. However, antibiotic choices should take into potential fetal toxicity (table 1). In addition, fetal shielding should be used during ER and fluoroscopy time should be minimized. (See "Gallstones in pregnancy", section on 'Choledocholithiasis/cholangitis'.) PROGNOSIS — Reported mortality rates for acute cholangitis are highly variable, ranging from 2 to 65 percent [3]. Studies of patients with severe cholangitis who were treated in the 1970s found mortality rates that exceeded 50 percent [32,33]. With advances in treatment, the mortality rate for cholangitis has dropped, with mortality rates in more recent studies of 11 percent or less [26,3438]. However, while improved, mortality rates for patients with severe acute cholangitis remain high (20 to 30 percent) [28,39]. PREVENTING RECURRENCE — Patients who develop acute cholangitis due to gallstones are at risk for recurrence. As with other complications of gallstone disease, cholecystectomy is generally recommended. (See "Management of acute pancreatitis", section on 'Cholecystectomy' and "Treatment of acute calculous cholecystitis", section on 'Timing of cholecystectomy'.) If the obstruction is due to a benign stenosis, as is seen following bile duct injuries, endoscopic therapy or surgical repair may be required. (See "Endoscopic management of complications from laparoscopic cholecystectomy", section on 'Endoscopic therapy for strictures' and "Repair of common bile duct injuries".) Recurrent obstruction is common in patients with malignant stenoses. Management is typically with stent placement, though the specific therapy chosen will depend on the patient's life expectancy and the likelihood of stent occlusion. (See "Endoscopic stenting for malignant pancreaticobiliary obstruction".) SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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● The classic presentation of acute cholangitis is fever, abdominal pain, and jaundice (Charcot's triad), though only 50 to 75 percent of patients with acute cholangitis have all three findings. Confusion and hypotension can occur in patients with suppurative cholangitis, producing Reynolds pentad, which is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. If septic shock develops, multiorgan failure may be seen. Hypotension may be the only presenting symptom in elderly patients or those on glucocorticoids. (See 'Clinical manifestations' above.) ● Acute cholangitis should be suspected if a patient has one of the following (see 'Diagnosis' above): • Fever and/or shaking chills • Laboratory evidence of an inflammatory response (abnormal white blood cell count, increased serum C reactive protein, or other changes suggestive of inflammation) and one of the following: • Jaundice • Abnormal liver chemistries (elevated alkaline phosphatase, gammaglutamyl transpeptidase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase) The diagnosis is considered definite if, in addition to meeting the criteria for a suspected diagnosis, the patient also has: • Biliary dilation on imaging • Evidence of an etiology on imaging (eg, a stricture, stone, or stent). ● The differential diagnosis of fever and abdominal pain includes: • Biliary leaks (see "Complications of laparoscopic cholecystectomy", section on 'Biliary and cystic duct leaks') • Acute diverticulitis (see "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of acute diverticulitis in adults", section on 'Diagnosis') • Cholecystitis (see "Acute cholecystitis: Pathogenesis, clinical features, and diagnosis", section on 'Diagnosis') • Appendicitis (see "Acute appendicitis in adults: Clinical manifestations and differential diagnosis") • Pancreatitis (see "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of acute pancreatitis", section on 'Diagnosis') • Liver abscess (see "Pyogenic liver abscess", section on 'Diagnosis') • Infected choledochal cysts (see "Biliary cysts", section on 'Clinical manifestations') • Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis (see "Recurrent pyogenic cholangitis", section on 'Diagnosis') • Mirizzi syndrome (see "Mirizzi syndrome", section on 'Diagnosis') • Intestinal perforation (see "Overview of the complications of peptic ulcer disease", section on 'Diagnosis') • Right lower lobe pneumonia/empyema (see "Diagnostic approach to communityacquired pneumonia in adults") ● Management of acute cholangitis includes all of the following: monitoring for and treating sepsis, providing antibiotic coverage, and establishing biliary drainage. (See 'Management' above.) ● Patients with acute cholangitis should receive empiric therapy with antibiotics that cover colonic bacteria (table 1). Once blood culture results are available, therapy should be tailored. (See 'Antibiotics' above.) ● We recommend endoscopic sphincterotomy with stone extraction and/or stent insertion for establishing biliary drainage in acute cholangitis rather than treatment with antibiotics alone (Grade 1B). Common bile https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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duct stones can be removed successfully in 90 to 95 percent of patients after sphincterotomy. If ER is not technically feasible or fails to establish biliary drainage, biliary drainage can often be achieved by percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography or open surgical decompression. (See 'Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography' above.) ● Seventy to 80 percent of patients with acute cholangitis will respond to conservative management with antibiotic therapy. Patients should undergo biliary drainage as soon as possible, but if they respond to antibiotics, it is reasonable to wait until arrangements can be made to perform an ER in the endoscopy suite with a full complement of experienced staff, provided the procedure can be done within 24 to 48 hours [3,22,23]. If ER is delayed and the patient has not improved over the first 24 hours with conservative management, urgent biliary decompression is required. (See 'Biliary drainage' above.) Urgent biliary decompression is also indicated for patients with signs of acute suppurative cholangitis, such as: • Persistent abdominal pain • Hypotension despite adequate resuscitation • Fever greater than 39°C (102°F) • Mental confusion (a predictor of poor outcome) Use of UpToDate is subject to the Subscription and License Agreement. REFERENCES 1. Boey JH, Way LW. Acute cholangitis. Ann Surg 1980; 191:264. 2. Sung JY, Costerton JW, Shaffer EA. Defense system in the biliary tract against bacterial infection. Dig Dis Sci 1992; 37:689. 3. Kimura Y, Takada T, Kawarada Y, et al. Definitions, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis: Tokyo Guidelines. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 2007; 14:15. 4. Huibregtse K, CarrLocke DL, Cremer M, et al. Biliary stent occlusiona problem solved with selfexpanding metal stents? European Wallstent Study Group. Endoscopy 1992; 24:391. 5. Csendes A, Becerra M, Burdiles P, et al. Bacteriological studies of bile from the gallbladder in patients with carcinoma of the gallbladder, cholelithiasis, common bile duct stones and no gallstones disease. Eur J Surg 1994; 160:363. 6. Ohdan H, Oshiro H, Yamamoto Y, et al. Bacteriological investigation of bile in patients with cholelithiasis. Surg Today 1993; 23:390. 7. Leung JW, Sung JY, Costerton JW. Bacteriological and electron microscopy examination of brown pigment stones. J Clin Microbiol 1989; 27:915. 8. van den Hazel SJ, Speelman P, Tytgat GN, et al. Role of antibiotics in the treatment and prevention of acute and recurrent cholangitis. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19:279. 9. Saik RP, Greenburg AG, Farris JM, Peskin GW. Spectrum of cholangitis. Am J Surg 1975; 130:143. 10. DenBesten L, Doty JE. Pathogenesis and management of choledocholithiasis. Surg Clin North Am 1981; 61:893. 11. Mosler P. Diagnosis and management of acute cholangitis. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2011; 13:166.
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12. Attasaranya S, Fogel EL, Lehman GA. Choledocholithiasis, ascending cholangitis, and gallstone pancreatitis. Med Clin North Am 2008; 92:925. 13. Kiriyama S, Takada T, Strasberg SM, et al. TG13 guidelines for diagnosis and severity grading of acute cholangitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2013; 20:24. 14. Negm AA, Schott A, Vonberg RP, et al. Routine bile collection for microbiological analysis during cholangiography and its impact on the management of cholangitis. Gastrointest Endosc 2010; 72:284. 15. Chan YL, Chan AC, Lam WW, et al. Choledocholithiasis: comparison of MR cholangiography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiography. Radiology 1996; 200:85. 16. Lee MG, Lee HJ, Kim MH, et al. Extrahepatic biliary diseases: 3D MR cholangiopancreatography compared with endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Radiology 1997; 202:663. 17. Soto JA, Yucel EK, Barish MA, et al. MR cholangiopancreatography after unsuccessful or incomplete ER. Radiology 1996; 199:91. 18. Leung JW, Ling TK, Chan RC, et al. Antibiotics, biliary sepsis, and bile duct stones. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40:716. 19. Sinanan MN. Acute cholangitis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1992; 6:571. 20. Sung JJ, Lyon DJ, Suen R, et al. Intravenous ciprofloxacin as treatment for patients with acute suppurative cholangitis: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995; 35:855. 21. Gerecht WB, Henry NK, Hoffman WW, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of mezlocillin therapy alone with combined ampicillin and gentamicin therapy for patients with cholangitis. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149:1279. 22. Hui CK, Lai KC, Yuen MF, et al. Acute cholangitispredictive factors for emergency ER. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001; 15:1633. 23. Salek J, Livote E, Sideridis K, Bank S. Analysis of risk factors predictive of early mortality and urgent ER in acute cholangitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2009; 43:171. 24. Yeom DH, Oh HJ, Son YW, Kim TH. What are the risk factors for acute suppurative cholangitis caused by common bile duct stones? Gut Liver 2010; 4:363. 25. Lai EC, Mok FP, Tan ES, et al. Endoscopic biliary drainage for severe acute cholangitis. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:1582. 26. Chijiiwa K, Kozaki N, Naito T, et al. Treatment of choice for choledocholithiasis in patients with acute obstructive suppurative cholangitis and liver cirrhosis. Am J Surg 1995; 170:356. 27. Leese T, Neoptolemos JP, Baker AR, CarrLocke DL. Management of acute cholangitis and the impact of endoscopic sphincterotomy. Br J Surg 1986; 73:988. 28. Lai EC, Tam PC, Paterson IA, et al. Emergency surgery for severe acute cholangitis. The highrisk patients. Ann Surg 1990; 211:55. 29. Leung JW, Cotton PB. Endoscopic nasobiliary catheter drainage in biliary and pancreatic disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86:389. 30. Lee DW, Chan AC, Lam YH, et al. Biliary decompression by nasobiliary catheter or biliary stent in acute suppurative cholangitis: a prospective randomized trial. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 56:361. 31. Hui CK, Lai KC, Yuen MF, et al. Does the addition of endoscopic sphincterotomy to stent insertion improve drainage of the bile duct in acute suppurative cholangitis? Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58:500. 32. Andrew DJ, Johnson SE. Acute suppurative cholangitis, a medical and surgical emergency. A review of ten years experience emphasizing early recognition. Am J Gastroenterol 1970; 54:141. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acutecholangitis/print?source=search_result&search=acute%20cholangitis&selectedTitle=1~150
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33. Shimada H, Nakagawara G, Kobayashi M, et al. Pathogenesis and clinical features of acute cholangitis accompanied by shock. Jpn J Surg 1984; 14:269. 34. Csendes A, Diaz JC, Burdiles P, et al. Risk factors and classification of acute suppurative cholangitis. Br J Surg 1992; 79:655. 35. Himal HS, Lindsay T. Ascending cholangitis: surgery versus endoscopic or percutaneous drainage. Surgery 1990; 108:629. 36. Thompson JE Jr, Pitt HA, Doty JE, et al. Broad spectrum penicillin as an adequate therapy for acute cholangitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1990; 171:275. 37. Tai DI, Shen FH, Liaw YF. Abnormal predrainage serum creatinine as a prognostic indicator in acute cholangitis. Hepatogastroenterology 1992; 39:47. 38. Thompson J, Bennion RS, Pitt HA. An analysis of infectious failures in acute cholangitis. HPB Surg 1994; 8:139. 39. Liu TJ. Acute biliary septic shock. HPB Surg 1990; 2:177. Topic 658 Version 18.0
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GRAPHICS Obstructing stone in common bile duct
Following cannulation of the distal common bile duct during an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography examination (arrow indicates cannula), contrast material was injected, outlining a large stone producing complete obstruction of the distal duct (arrowhead). Courtesy of Jonathan Kruskal, MD. Graphic 70088 Version 3.0
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Endoscopic bile duct stone extraction
ER showing an impacted stone in the major papilla ( A, arrow) in a patient with fever, pain, abnormal liver enzymes, and elevated amylase and lipase. Biliary sphincterotomy was performed with stone extraction using a balloon. Pus was noted soon after stone extraction ( B, ellipse). Multiple additional stones were then extracted ( C, arrows). Two days after stone extraction, the liver enzymes, amylase, and lipase normalized and the pain and fever resolved. Courtesy of Andres Gelrud, MD. Graphic 67640 Version 2.0
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201764
Acute cholangitis UpToDate
ER in acute cholangitis
Diagnosis and treatment of acute cholangitis with ER. (A): Multiple small stones in the lower common bile duct (arrow). Ultrasonography had shown borderline dilatation of the common bile duct but no stones. (B): After sphincterotomy and stone extraction, the common bile duct is free of stones. ER: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Courtesy of Nezam Afdhal, MD. Graphic 62967 Version 3.0
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13/16
201764
Acute cholangitis UpToDate
Acute cholangitis MR
A 64yearold man presented to the emergency department complaining of severe right upper quadrant abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fevers. Laboratory data revealed an elevated white blood cell count with a left shift, elevated liver function tests including bilirubin, and elevated pancreatic enzymes. A right upper quadrant ultrasound revealed a dilated bile duct with possible stones in the bile duct and gallbladder. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MR) was performed and revealed multiple filling defects in the common bile duct and cystic duct (arrows). Courtesy of Andres Gelrud, MD. Graphic 57884 Version 2.0
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14/16
201764
Acute cholangitis UpToDate
Empiric antibiotic therapy for gramnegative and anaerobic pathogens Regimen
Dose (adult)*
First choice Monotherapy with a betalactam/betalactamase inhibitor: Ampicillinsulbactam ¶
3 g IV every six hours
Piperacillintazobactam Δ
3.375 or 4.5 g IV every six hours
Ticarcillinclavulanate
3.1 g IV every four hours
Combination third generation cephalosporin PLUS metronidazole: Ceftriaxone plus
1 g IV every 24 hours or 2 g IV every 12 hours for CNS infections
Metronidazole
500 mg IV every eight hours
Alternative empiric regimens Combination fluoroquinolone ◊ PLUS metronidazole: Ciprofloxacin or
400 mg IV every 12 hours
Levofloxacin plus
500 or 750 mg IV once daily
Metronidazole
500 mg IV every eight hours
Monotherapy with a carbapenem §: Imipenemcilastatin
500 mg IV every six hours
Meropenem
1 g IV every eight hours
Doripenem
500 mg IV every eight hours
Ertapenem ¥
1 g IV once daily
* Antibiotic doses should be adjusted appropriately for patients with renal insufficiency or other doserelated consideration. ¶ E coli resistance to Ampicillinsulbactam is emerging in some areas; check local susceptibility data. Δ Some clinicians use 4.5 g every eight hours for empiric therapy since the percent time above the MIC is similar between the regimens for most pathogens; however, this regimen is NOT recommended for nosocomial pneumonia or Pseudomonas coverage. Please refer to UpToDate topics on the "Treatment of hospitalacquired, ventilatorassociated, and healthcare associated pneumonia in adults" and "Treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections". ◊ Fluoroquinolones are generally avoided in pregnant women due to potential fetal toxicity.
§ Use carbapenems cautiously in patients with immediatetype hypersensitivity to betalactams. ¥ Ertapenem lacks activity against Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas and is not an appropriate choice for severe or nosocomial infection. Graphic 67894 Version 15.0
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15/16
201764
Acute cholangitis UpToDate
Suppurative cholangitis
Endoscopy in a patient with suppurative cholangitis shows pus coming out of the ampulla of Vater (arrow). Graphic 69133 Version 1.0
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