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Organic Compounds Biology I Honors
Elements and Compounds in Living Things
90 elements NATURALLY occurring Only 11 are common in living things
MOST Common are:
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen
These 4 elements make up 96.3% of the human body
20 elements are found in small (TRACE) amounts in living things
2 Main Groups of Chemical Compounds
Organic Inorganic
Organic Compounds
Contain carbon Also tend to be
Large molecules (made up of lots of atoms) Complex Lots of carbon and hydrogen atoms bound covalently
These are the primary compounds that make up the working structures of living things!
Inorganic Compounds
Generally do NOT contain carbon
Also tend to be
CO2 is an exception Small Simple
While NOT the major building blocks of life, they are absolutely necessary for life
Think WATER and Carbon Dioxide!
What’s so special about CARBON?
It’s a great Tinker Toy!
4 outer (valence) electrons Can bind with 4 different atoms
What’s so special about CARBON?
Readily forms COVALENT bonds with other atoms that are strong and stable
What’s so special about CARBON?
Can form chains of almost unlimited length by bonding with other carbon atoms These long chains can then FOLD to make many complex shapes
THE BOTTOM LINE about CARBON
It has HUGE potential for making a WIDE VARIETY of different types of molecules!
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Polymer – a large molecule made up of many smaller subunits Monomer – a small subunit (building block) that can be ed with other subunits to make a polymer
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Polymerization – the process of building LARGE molecules by ing together many smaller subunits
Provides a way for really large complex molecules to form from smaller ones
Macromolecule – term for VERY large polymers
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Dehydration Synthesis
Process that MAKES polymers Two monomers are ed together by removing a molecule of water from between them
Dehydration – lose water Synthesis – making or putting together
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Hydrolysis
Process in which polymers are broken apart Add back the water that was taken out Breaks polymer into monomer subunits Example: digestion
Bottom Line about Making Polymers
Small subunits link together to make large polymers
Dehydration reactions link them
Removal of water
Creates covalent bonds between subunits
To break apart polymers into subunits, you just add the water back
Hydrolysis reaction Breaks covalent bonds between subunits
Bottom Line about Making Polymers
Really LONG complex molecules can be made and broken down by these methods. Like linking and unlinking cars in a train.
FOUR MAJOR GROUPS of Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
Functions
Quick ENERGY Energy STORAGE in PLANTS Energy STORAGE in ANIMALS Structural compounds for
GENERAL CARB STRUCTURE: Monomers and Polymers
Monomers
Monosaccharides Individual car in the train
Polymers
Polysaccharides The whole train
Monosaccharides
Monomers of carbs are monosaccharides Simple/single sugars Basic formula CH2O Example:
GLUCOSE; C6H12O6 Sugar made by plants in photosynthesis Others: galactose (milk sugar); fructose (fruit)
Why monosaccharides are important
Energy in them can be made QUICKLY available to living things
Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the sugar molecules
In particular, bonds between CARBON and HYDROGEN atoms store lots of energy
When these bonds are broken, energy is released This energy is then available to use
Cellular respiration converts this energy to a usable form!
Monosaccharide - Glucose
Note that there are lots of these C-H bonds in a sugar molecule Each has lots of potential energy stored in it
Disaccharides
DOUBLE sugars Two monosaccharides ed Examples:
Sucrose (table sugar)
Glucose + fructose
Lactose (milk)
Galactose + glucose
Why are Disaccharides useful?
Not quite so easily broken down as monosaccharides Can by used by plants / animals for safe temporary storage of sugars
Used in transport in plants
Sugar not consumed on its way from leaves to roots
Makes milk harder to digest in animals
MOST adult animals cannot digest milk Keeps it for YOUNG ONLY
Polysaccharides
Made by ing MANY monosaccharides Sugar (thus energy) is STORED in this form
TYPES of Polysaccharides
STARCH
PLANTS store energy in this form LOTS of GLUCOSE molecules linked in LONG CHAINS Animals CANNOT store energy in this form, but they CAN digest and USE it!
Starch
TYPES of Polysaccharides
GLYCOGEN
Energy storage carbohydrate in ANIMALS Found in the liver, mostly. ALSO made of lots of glucose linked together As you consume sugar, your liver converts it to glycogen and stores it.
Through the day as you need energy, the liver breaks off sugars from the glycogen molecules for you to us
Glycogen
Cellulose
STRUCTURAL carbohydrate in PLANTS ALSO lots of glucose linked together CELL WALLS in plant cells and PROTECTION UNDIGESTABLE BY ANIMALS WOOD
Chitin
STRUCTURAL carbohydrate Cell walls of fungi Exoskeleton of arthropods
Lipids
Waxes Oils Fats Steroids
Functions of Lipids
Energy Storage animals and plants Insulation
Keeps animals warm blubber
Functions of Lipids
Waterproofing
Duck feathers are kept dry by a layer of oil Mammal fur (beaver, otter, etc.), too.
Functions of Lipids
shockabsorption/protection of organs formation of membranes in cells and organelles make important compounds called steroids - cholesterol and hormones (estrogen and testosterone, for example)
Structure of Lipids
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids
Glycerol is just a “connector” 3 fatty acids are the most important part
Why are Fatty Acids the “important part”?
fatty acids are LONG chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms : bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms STORE ENERGY! So fats (with their 3 fatty acids) are PACKED with energy and are GREAT at energy storage
EFFICIENT energy storage
Because there are SO MANY C-H bonds in fatty acids, lipids are VERY efficient ways of storing energy.
Fats produce more energy per gram than carbohydrates do!
more efficient means better for animals lots of energy without much "baggage“ for animals that need to move.
Efficient energy storage
Some plants do use oils for energy storage
Corn oil, peanut oil, etc.
Efficiency is just not as important for plants since they don’t have to move around - so starch is still often the primary energy storage molecule for them
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
saturated fat - when each carbon in a fatty acid shares a single covalent bond with as many hydrogen atoms as possible causes the fatty acids to be very straight fatty acids like this can pack very tightly together because they can pack tightly, saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature butter and lard
Saturated Fat
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
unsaturated fat - a fatty acid that has at least two carbons double bonded to each other instead of to hydrogen atoms - that is, the carbons are NOT bound to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. causes the fatty acids to bend fatty acids like this cannot pack very tightly together because of this unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature
oils
Saturated vs. Nonsaturated Fats
Protein
Functions – MANY!
Structural – build structures in organisms muscle contraction communication between cells movement of cell parts MOST IMORTANT: ENZYMES!!!
Structure of Proteins
Monomers of Proteins are AMINO ACIDS
ALWAYS a carbon in the middle ALWAYS an H at the “top” ALWAYS an amino group on one side ALWAYS a carboxyl group on the other side R group is always there, but TYPE of R-group VARIES
20 different types All have different characteristics
Protein Structure
A protein is a polymer of amino acids Amino acid monomers link together by covalent bonds called PEPTIDE BONDS. = Proteins are long chains of amino acids
sometimes called polypeptides in reference to their peptide bonds.
Peptide bonds are formed the same way as all bonds among the organic compounds we're discussing - DEHYDRATION reactions.
Making Proteins from Amino Acids
Enzymes
Chemical reactions are what living things are all about. Most of the chemical reactions in your body, if left to themselves, would not happen quickly enough for you to survive. CATALYST - something that speeds up a chemical reaction Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for the chemical reactions in your body.
Enzymes
Enzymes have unique shapes designed to fit the chemicals that they are to "speed up" (the SUBSTRATES of the REACTION) The region of the enzyme that FITS the substrate specifically is called the enzyme's ACTIVE SITE.
The substrate BINDS with the enzyme at the enzyme's ACTIVE SITE.
Enzymes
Enzymes can either:
bring two (or more) reactants together more quickly and force them to react stress bonds in a single substrate and cause it to break apart more easily
Enzymes
An enzyme itself is NOT CHANGED by the chemical reaction it catalyzes A single enzyme can repeat its catalytic activity with many, many substrate molecules - that is, it can be used over and over again.
Enzyme catalyzed reaction
Enzymes
ENZYMES ARE VERY SPECIFIC!
If the shape of the enzyme's active site becomes damaged, it will be unable to bind with its substrate Thus, it will be unable to function. If an enzyme loses its shape it is said to be DENATURED. enzymes can be denatured by HEAT or by extremes in pH.
Nucleic Acids
Functions
tell the cell how to function transmit genetic information to offspring
Nucleic Acids
Structure
Monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides
Sugar Phosphate Base
Many nucleotides linked together give a nucleic acid - RNA and DNA are the two main examples
Elements and Compounds in Living Things
90 elements NATURALLY occurring Only 11 are common in living things
MOST Common are:
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen
These 4 elements make up 96.3% of the human body
20 elements are found in small (TRACE) amounts in living things
2 Main Groups of Chemical Compounds
Organic Inorganic
Organic Compounds
Contain carbon Also tend to be
Large molecules (made up of lots of atoms) Complex Lots of carbon and hydrogen atoms bound covalently
These are the primary compounds that make up the working structures of living things!
Inorganic Compounds
Generally do NOT contain carbon
Also tend to be
CO2 is an exception Small Simple
While NOT the major building blocks of life, they are absolutely necessary for life
Think WATER and Carbon Dioxide!
What’s so special about CARBON?
It’s a great Tinker Toy!
4 outer (valence) electrons Can bind with 4 different atoms
What’s so special about CARBON?
Readily forms COVALENT bonds with other atoms that are strong and stable
What’s so special about CARBON?
Can form chains of almost unlimited length by bonding with other carbon atoms These long chains can then FOLD to make many complex shapes
THE BOTTOM LINE about CARBON
It has HUGE potential for making a WIDE VARIETY of different types of molecules!
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Polymer – a large molecule made up of many smaller subunits Monomer – a small subunit (building block) that can be ed with other subunits to make a polymer
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Polymerization – the process of building LARGE molecules by ing together many smaller subunits
Provides a way for really large complex molecules to form from smaller ones
Macromolecule – term for VERY large polymers
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Dehydration Synthesis
Process that MAKES polymers Two monomers are ed together by removing a molecule of water from between them
Dehydration – lose water Synthesis – making or putting together
How to BUILD (and take apart) Organic Molecules
Hydrolysis
Process in which polymers are broken apart Add back the water that was taken out Breaks polymer into monomer subunits Example: digestion
Bottom Line about Making Polymers
Small subunits link together to make large polymers
Dehydration reactions link them
Removal of water
Creates covalent bonds between subunits
To break apart polymers into subunits, you just add the water back
Hydrolysis reaction Breaks covalent bonds between subunits
Bottom Line about Making Polymers
Really LONG complex molecules can be made and broken down by these methods. Like linking and unlinking cars in a train.
FOUR MAJOR GROUPS of Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
Functions
Quick ENERGY Energy STORAGE in PLANTS Energy STORAGE in ANIMALS Structural compounds for
GENERAL CARB STRUCTURE: Monomers and Polymers
Monomers
Monosaccharides Individual car in the train
Polymers
Polysaccharides The whole train
Monosaccharides
Monomers of carbs are monosaccharides Simple/single sugars Basic formula CH2O Example:
GLUCOSE; C6H12O6 Sugar made by plants in photosynthesis Others: galactose (milk sugar); fructose (fruit)
Why monosaccharides are important
Energy in them can be made QUICKLY available to living things
Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the sugar molecules
In particular, bonds between CARBON and HYDROGEN atoms store lots of energy
When these bonds are broken, energy is released This energy is then available to use
Cellular respiration converts this energy to a usable form!
Monosaccharide - Glucose
Note that there are lots of these C-H bonds in a sugar molecule Each has lots of potential energy stored in it
Disaccharides
DOUBLE sugars Two monosaccharides ed Examples:
Sucrose (table sugar)
Glucose + fructose
Lactose (milk)
Galactose + glucose
Why are Disaccharides useful?
Not quite so easily broken down as monosaccharides Can by used by plants / animals for safe temporary storage of sugars
Used in transport in plants
Sugar not consumed on its way from leaves to roots
Makes milk harder to digest in animals
MOST adult animals cannot digest milk Keeps it for YOUNG ONLY
Polysaccharides
Made by ing MANY monosaccharides Sugar (thus energy) is STORED in this form
TYPES of Polysaccharides
STARCH
PLANTS store energy in this form LOTS of GLUCOSE molecules linked in LONG CHAINS Animals CANNOT store energy in this form, but they CAN digest and USE it!
Starch
TYPES of Polysaccharides
GLYCOGEN
Energy storage carbohydrate in ANIMALS Found in the liver, mostly. ALSO made of lots of glucose linked together As you consume sugar, your liver converts it to glycogen and stores it.
Through the day as you need energy, the liver breaks off sugars from the glycogen molecules for you to us
Glycogen
Cellulose
STRUCTURAL carbohydrate in PLANTS ALSO lots of glucose linked together CELL WALLS in plant cells and PROTECTION UNDIGESTABLE BY ANIMALS WOOD
Chitin
STRUCTURAL carbohydrate Cell walls of fungi Exoskeleton of arthropods
Lipids
Waxes Oils Fats Steroids
Functions of Lipids
Energy Storage animals and plants Insulation
Keeps animals warm blubber
Functions of Lipids
Waterproofing
Duck feathers are kept dry by a layer of oil Mammal fur (beaver, otter, etc.), too.
Functions of Lipids
shockabsorption/protection of organs formation of membranes in cells and organelles make important compounds called steroids - cholesterol and hormones (estrogen and testosterone, for example)
Structure of Lipids
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids
Glycerol is just a “connector” 3 fatty acids are the most important part
Why are Fatty Acids the “important part”?
fatty acids are LONG chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms : bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms STORE ENERGY! So fats (with their 3 fatty acids) are PACKED with energy and are GREAT at energy storage
EFFICIENT energy storage
Because there are SO MANY C-H bonds in fatty acids, lipids are VERY efficient ways of storing energy.
Fats produce more energy per gram than carbohydrates do!
more efficient means better for animals lots of energy without much "baggage“ for animals that need to move.
Efficient energy storage
Some plants do use oils for energy storage
Corn oil, peanut oil, etc.
Efficiency is just not as important for plants since they don’t have to move around - so starch is still often the primary energy storage molecule for them
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
saturated fat - when each carbon in a fatty acid shares a single covalent bond with as many hydrogen atoms as possible causes the fatty acids to be very straight fatty acids like this can pack very tightly together because they can pack tightly, saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature butter and lard
Saturated Fat
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
unsaturated fat - a fatty acid that has at least two carbons double bonded to each other instead of to hydrogen atoms - that is, the carbons are NOT bound to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. causes the fatty acids to bend fatty acids like this cannot pack very tightly together because of this unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature
oils
Saturated vs. Nonsaturated Fats
Protein
Functions – MANY!
Structural – build structures in organisms muscle contraction communication between cells movement of cell parts MOST IMORTANT: ENZYMES!!!
Structure of Proteins
Monomers of Proteins are AMINO ACIDS
ALWAYS a carbon in the middle ALWAYS an H at the “top” ALWAYS an amino group on one side ALWAYS a carboxyl group on the other side R group is always there, but TYPE of R-group VARIES
20 different types All have different characteristics
Protein Structure
A protein is a polymer of amino acids Amino acid monomers link together by covalent bonds called PEPTIDE BONDS. = Proteins are long chains of amino acids
sometimes called polypeptides in reference to their peptide bonds.
Peptide bonds are formed the same way as all bonds among the organic compounds we're discussing - DEHYDRATION reactions.
Making Proteins from Amino Acids
Enzymes
Chemical reactions are what living things are all about. Most of the chemical reactions in your body, if left to themselves, would not happen quickly enough for you to survive. CATALYST - something that speeds up a chemical reaction Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for the chemical reactions in your body.
Enzymes
Enzymes have unique shapes designed to fit the chemicals that they are to "speed up" (the SUBSTRATES of the REACTION) The region of the enzyme that FITS the substrate specifically is called the enzyme's ACTIVE SITE.
The substrate BINDS with the enzyme at the enzyme's ACTIVE SITE.
Enzymes
Enzymes can either:
bring two (or more) reactants together more quickly and force them to react stress bonds in a single substrate and cause it to break apart more easily
Enzymes
An enzyme itself is NOT CHANGED by the chemical reaction it catalyzes A single enzyme can repeat its catalytic activity with many, many substrate molecules - that is, it can be used over and over again.
Enzyme catalyzed reaction
Enzymes
ENZYMES ARE VERY SPECIFIC!
If the shape of the enzyme's active site becomes damaged, it will be unable to bind with its substrate Thus, it will be unable to function. If an enzyme loses its shape it is said to be DENATURED. enzymes can be denatured by HEAT or by extremes in pH.
Nucleic Acids
Functions
tell the cell how to function transmit genetic information to offspring
Nucleic Acids
Structure
Monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides
Sugar Phosphate Base
Many nucleotides linked together give a nucleic acid - RNA and DNA are the two main examples
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