Echo Sounder 5w5r5u

ECHOSOUNDER CORRECTIONS Presented by A. Krishnakumar M.Tech-OE11M034

Introduction  Fathometer, echo or depth sounder  measures the round‐trip travel time of an acoustic pulse emitted by a transducer at the ocean surface, reflected from the ocean bottom and received back at the same transducer  Travel time is converted to range by multiplying half the round‐trip time by the speed of sound ’c’  Most echo sounders are calibrated for nominal sound speeds c= 15000 m/s or 800 fathoms/s (4800 ft/s)  Accuracies achieved with no correction for departures from these nominal values are within a few percent of water depth  Where greater precision is required, corrections are made based on catalogued historical sound speed data or by measuring local so und speed directly.

Factors affecting performance of Echo sounder • Operating frequency • The characteristics of the emitted signal • Signal amplitude • Duration and • Modulation • The size of the transmitter and receiver aperture • Signal conditioning and processing algorithms  Depth accuracy is governed by the precision of the travel time measurement,σt, which is controlled by signal bandwidth BW and received sig nal‐to‐noise ratio SNR: σt = 1/(BW*√SNR)  Spatial resolution is governed by beam width φ, which is proportional to wavelength λ and inversely proportional to aperture size  For both a circular piston transducer of diameter d or continuous line arra y of length d, the full half‐power beam width is approximately φ= λ/d  Most common echo sounders for deep water operate near 12 kHz

Sources of errors in echo sounder • Large errors (blunders) Blunder is the terminology used to define errors made by machines; these are caused by defective mechanical or electronic components • Systematic errors Systematic errors are mainly the result of the offsets (fixed errors) or biases (errors that vary under different conditions) in motion sensing of the survey vessel, misalignment of the transducer and other sensor mounting angles. These errors can be easily corrected if the sign and size of the systematic error can be identified. This category of errors can be determined and removed during calibration of the system. • Random errors After removing blunders and systematic errors in the depth data, random errors will remain and these can be analyzed using statistical techniques

ECHOSOUNDING MEASUREMENT CORRECTION

• All depths must refer to a common datum. Numerous corrections must be applied to the results of soundings in order to get chartered depths which refer to the defined datum. • Chart depth is obtained as the sum of • Observed depth (raw uncorrected sounding). • Instrumental corrections. • Sound velocity correction (discrepancy between actual and constant velocity used by the sounder to derive depth). • Dynamic draft correction, which is the sum of a) Static draft (depth of transducer when the vessel is at rest). b)Settlement (difference between rest and underway positions). c) Squat (change in trim when underway) • Water level (tidal correction).

Depth Measurement Correction

SOURCE OF ERRORS AND ITS CORRECTIONS

SINGLE BEAM ECHO SOUNDER

1. Due to bottom slope • Taking into consideration the different seafloor slopes, in Figure 3.25, the error on the depth measurement, dz, depends on both beam width and slope • If no correction is applied, the error in depth will be given by:

where, is half beam width and

is the slope of the seafloor.

Effect of beam width and seafloor slope on depth measurement and positioning

2. Due to sound velocity • Sound velocity variation is difficult to monitor and produces, in single beam echo sounders, errors in the depth measurement (dzm), proportional to the mean sound velocity error or variation (dc) and to the depth:

Or

Contd… The magnitude of the sound velocity error varies with: a) accuracy of sound velocity determination; b) temporal variation of sound velocity; c) spatial variation of sound velocity The depth variance, , due to sound velocity measurement error and to sound velocity variation is written as

where , is the sound velocity measurement variance and is the sound velocity variance due to spatial and temporal variations

3. Due to time measurement • An echo sounder effectively measures time, converting the measurement to depth. The error in time measurement, dt, relates directly to depth error, dzt • In modern echo sounders, time measurement error is usually small and constant. This error is also taken into consideration during calibration

• The major error is a function of identification of the measurement point within the echo, i.e. on the algorithms used for signal detection • The depth variance, , due to time measurement error is written as,

Where,

is the time measurement variance.

4. Due to roll and pitch • Roll and pitch contribute to the error in depth measurement when the magnitude of those angles is greater than one half the beam widths, φ/2. • The error in depth measurement and in positioning due to roll, θR, pitch changing θR by θP are depicted in the figure Effect of beam width and seafloor slope on depth measurement and positioning

Contd… • Wide beam echo sounders are usually immune to the roll and pitch of the survey vessel. • For narrow beam echo sounders, this effect may be compensated with beam stabilisation, i.e. keeping the beam vertical regardless of the vessel’s attitude or correcting the measured depth and position as follows:

5. Due to Heave • The heave (h), effect caused by the action of sea and swell on the survey vessel, is measured with inertial sensors or heave compensators. • The heave compensator should be placed over the transducer to measure the heave in the same vertical axis. • When using inertial sensors, installation should be close to the centre of gravity of the survey vessel with the known lever arms from the centre of gravity to the transducer; • With the roll and pitch instantaneous angles, the measured heave, hm, can be transferred to the transducer position, ht, through the application of the induced heave, hi.

Heave error correction • The induced heave, adapted from Hare [1995] for the reference frames defined is given by:

Where, θR is the roll angle, θP is the pitch angle and (xt, yt & zt) are the transducer co-ordinates. The total error on the depth measurement due to heave is therefore, where dhm is the error in heave measurement and dhi is the error in the induced heave determination.

Contd…

• The total heave variance corresponds to the depth variance, Where, is the heave measurement variance and heave variance

i.e.,

is the the induced

Manual heave filtering •

When no heave compensator is available, it is possible manually to smooth the data in the echo trace. This task requires considerable experience in the interpretation of the echo trace in order to preserve seafloor features. The general procedure, in non significant roll conditions, is that the echo trace should be smoothed half way between crests and troughs.

Compensation for Heave error Heave can be corrected by, • Shore-based electro-optical method to correct for heave (for nearshore surveys), • The use of a heave compensator. This is a vertically mounted accelerometer on a stabilized platform. • The use of precise DGPS. Carrier phase data observed at a high sampling rate (1 Hz or more) is used to average the height variations caused by heave motion. Heave compensation by shore-based electro-optical methods

6. Due to draught, settlement, squat and relative position of transducer • Draught: The accurate measurement of the transducer draught is fundamental to the accuracy of the total depth. Even so it is generally necessary to update that value during the survey. The reasons for the draught variation are mainly due to the fuel and water consumption. The draught variation, for the same displacement, increases with the decrease of the float area at the sea surface. The draught error propagates directly as a depth error, • Settlement is the general lowering in level of a moving vessel, relative to its motionless state level. This effect, particularly noticeable in shallow waters, is due to the regional depression of the surface of the water in which the vessel moves. The depth error due to settlement is referred to

Contd…

• Squat is another effect that takes place under dynamic conditions, the change in level of the bow and stern from the rest condition in response to the elevation and depression of the water level about the hull resulting from the bow and stern wave systems. In surveying vessels where the change in squat is significant, it is usually computed in a table of squat versus vessel speed. The depth error due to squat is referred to . • The relative position of the transducer: The total error due to transducer position to the water line, dzi is: The total depth variance due to transducer immersion is written as:

Where, is the draught variance, is the squat variance.

is the settlement variance and

7. False Echoes

• False echoes are caused by foreign matter such as kelp or fish in the water column • False echoes are occasionally recorded by echo sounders and might be interpreted erroneously as correct depths. In cases of doubt over the validity of measured depths, an investigation of that sounding should be performed and the particular part of the survey line re-run if necessary.

8. Multiple echoes • Multiple echoes – are echoes received subsequent to the very first one due to a multiplicity of reflections back and forth between the seafloor and the surface. These reflections are often recorded as multiples of the first depth

Multibeam systems

1. Due to sound velocity

• Errors in sound velocity or in its variation result in incorrect refraction solutions and, consequently, to errors in depth measurement and positioning. • The ray tracing is based on Snell’s law which states the relation between the ray direction and the acoustic wave velocity:

• where ci is the sound velocity, θi is the incidence angle referred to the vertical at the depth zi, and κ is the ray parameter or Snell constant. • Assuming that the sound velocity profile is discrete , it is reasonable to assume that the sound velocity gradient in a layer, between two measurements, is constant. Though, the sound velocity is represented as follows: where gi is the constant gradient at layer i, given by:

Contd… • In each layer the acoustic pulse travels a path with constant radius of curvature, ρi, given by:

• The depth error, dzc, due to the gradient variation, dg, and surface sound velocity variation, dc0, by differentiation can be approximated by, The depth variance due to sound velocity errors is written as:

Where, σg corresponds to the variance of the gradient of the sound velocity profile and σc0 corresponds to the variance of the initial value of the sound velocity profile used for depth calculation.

Beam steering error due to sound velocity variation

The depth variance due to beam steering is: The estimated total depth variance due to sound velocity errors is written as

2. Due to motion sensing • The depth measurement is dependent on pitch error and roll error, the contribution being given as follows: and • The depth variances are and • The total depth variance due to vessel attitude and heave is

3. Due to draught, settlement, squat and relative position of transducer. • The accurate measurement of transducer draught and knowledge of vessel behavior in dynamic conditions, settlement and squat, are fundamental to the accuracy of the measured depths. These errors will contribute to the depth error independent of the beam angle. The total depth variance due to transducer immersion is,

DEPTH REDUCTION IN ECHO SOUNDER • The measured depths, corrected for the attitude of the surveying vessel, are reduced to the vertical datum by the application of the tide. The depth error due to tide error measurement is referred to dztide. • In addition to the error in tide measurement, sometimes a more significant error is the co-tidal correction which results from the difference of the actual tide in the survey area and in the tide gauge. The depth error from co-tidal error is dzco-tidal. • The tide variance , due to measurement error and co-tidal variation is written as, • The estimated reduced depth variance is written as follows,

CONCLUSION

• Wherever greater precision is required, the corrections comes into picture. Greater the correction, greater is the precision. But, the accuracy after the correction depends on the care and experience of the Hydrographer handling the measurement.

REFERENCES

• “Depth determination”, articulated in IHO publication,S-44(4th Edition).

• www.hydro.gov.hk/basic/multi.htm • www.knudsenengineering.com/files/manuals/320MMaintenance Manual.pdf